Tournament: Fullerton | Round: 2 | Opponent: Michigan AP | Judge: Seth Gannon

Cong Lead

Contention 3—-Congressional Leadership

Plan boosts Congressional power:

First: muscle. Boldly rejecting unitary use of force restores credibility

Bacevich 7 – Andrew, Professor of History and International Relations at Boston University and Ph.D. in American Diplomatic History from Princeton University, "Rescinding the Bush Doctrine", Boston Globe, 3-1, http://www.boston.com/news/globe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2007/03/01/rescinding_the_bush_doctrine/

RATHER THAN vainly sniping at President Bush over his management of the Iraq war,
AND
tarnished honor, and its standing in the eyes of the American people.

This spills over and builds institutional capacity for broader Congressional power —- active confrontation’s key

Schumer 7 – Charles E. Schumer, JD from Harvard Law School, AB in Politics from Harvard College, Senior United States Senator from New York, Youngest Representative in the History of New York State, "Under Attack: Congressional Power in the Twenty-First Century", Harvard Law 26 Policy Review, 1(1), http://web.archive.org/web/20120625034444/http://www.hlpronline.com/Vol1No1/schumer.pdf

Every basic civics text recites that our government is divided into three branches and that
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assertive branch of government. A Congress grown weak and compliant imperils democracy.

Second: experience and learning. Mandatory authorization increases Congressional engagement of foreign policy

Hunter 13 – Robert E. Hunter, Former U.S. Ambassador to NATO, Director of Middle East Affairs on the National Security Council Staff in the Carter Administration and Director of Transatlantic Security Studies at the National Defense University, "Restoring Congress’ Role in Making War", Iran Review, 9-1, http://www.iranreview.org/content/documents/restoring-congress-role-in-making-war.htm

But seeking authorization for the use of force from Congress as opposed to conducting consultations
AND
, also involve risks to the lives of America’s fighting men and women.

Congressional leadership’s key to foreign policy coherence—-solves multiple scenarios for extinction

Hamilton 2 – Lee H., President and Director of the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Vice Chairman of the 9/11 Commission, President’s Homeland Security Advisory Council, Former Member of the United States House of Representatives for 34 Years, Co-Chair of the Iraq Study Group, Formerly Special Assistant to the Director at the Woodrow Wilson Center, A Creative Tension: The Foreign Policy Roles of the President and Congress, p. 3-7

We face many dangers, however. The diversity of the security and economic threats
AND
such a foreign policy to advance our interests and values around the globe.

Foreign policy coherence accesses every major impact—-extinction

Doherty 13 – Patrick Doherty, Director of the Smart Strategy Initiative at the New America Foundation, "A New U.S. Grand Strategy", Foreign Policy, 1-9, http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2013/01/09/a_new_us_grand_strategy?page=full

The strategic landscape of the 21st century has finally come into focus. The great
AND
, and no more, to implement this strategy at home and abroad.

Congressional leadership’s key to mediate Armenia/Azerbaijan conflict

Furman 00 (Nancy E. Furman, associate in the office of Wilmer, Cutler 26 Pickering and former law clerk to Chief Judge Charles P. Sifton of the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of New York and received her J.D. from Harvard Law School, June, "The Nagorno-Karabagh Crisis: A Blueprint for Resolution", A Memorandum Prepared by the Public International Law 26 Policy Group and the New England Center for International Law 26 Policy, http://www.nesl.edu/userfiles/file/center20for20international20law20and20policy/nagorno.pdf)

D. United States Congressional Actions Throughout the crisis, the US Congress has been
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challenge, the appropriateness of legislative restrictions on direct financial assistance to Azerbaijan.

Now’s key—-it’s on the brink—-U.S. engagement prevents escalation

Suleymanov, 13 (Elin Suleymanov, ambassador of azerbaijan, 4/24, "armenia-azerbaijan region needs a high-level us envoy", the hill, http://thehill.com/blogs/congress-blog/foreign-policy/295929-armenia-azerbaijan-region-needs-a-high-level-us-envoy)

Although our lands have been under Armenian occupation for 20 years, we still put
AND
this conflict poses to become a chronic challenge and tinderbox for our region.

Global nuclear war

Avetyan 11 (avetik avo avetyan, special agent – us department of state, june 14, "war in the caucasus is inevitable", paper submitted in partial satisfaction of requirements of a master of science degree in joint campaign planning and strategy, national defense university joint forces staff college)

Behind the frozen status of the Nagorno-Karabagh conflict lurks a massive disaster that
AND
Nagorno-Karabakh conflict may be the catalyst for the next world war. 

No defense

Beckhusen, 10/18 (Robert, writer, 10/18/13, "Here’s the Ticking Time Bomb That Could Explode After Syria", War Is Boring, https://medium.com/war-is-boring/732db09ac12f)

Nagorno-Karabakh is little known outside the region, but since 1994 this mountainous
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with the International Crisis Group, said. That goes for both sides.

Tournament: Fullerton | Round: 5 | Opponent: Michigan KK | Judge: Lincoln

Plan boosts Congressional power:

First: muscle. Boldly rejecting unitary use of force restores credibility

Bacevich 7 – Andrew, Professor of History and International Relations at Boston University and Ph.D. in American Diplomatic History from Princeton University, "Rescinding the Bush Doctrine", Boston Globe, 3-1, http://www.boston.com/news/globe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2007/03/01/rescinding_the_bush_doctrine/

RATHER THAN vainly sniping at President Bush over his management of the Iraq war,
AND
tarnished honor, and its standing in the eyes of the American people.

This spills over and builds institutional capacity for broader Congressional power —- active confrontation’s key

Schumer 7 – Charles E. Schumer, JD from Harvard Law School, AB in Politics from Harvard College, Senior United States Senator from New York, Youngest Representative in the History of New York State, "Under Attack: Congressional Power in the Twenty-First Century", Harvard Law 26 Policy Review, 1(1), http://web.archive.org/web/20120625034444/http://www.hlpronline.com/Vol1No1/schumer.pdf

Every basic civics text recites that our government is divided into three branches and that
AND
assertive branch of government. A Congress grown weak and compliant imperils democracy.

Second: experience and learning. Mandatory authorization increases Congressional engagement of foreign policy

Hunter 13 – Robert E. Hunter, Former U.S. Ambassador to NATO, Director of Middle East Affairs on the National Security Council Staff in the Carter Administration and Director of Transatlantic Security Studies at the National Defense University, "Restoring Congress’ Role in Making War", Iran Review, 9-1, http://www.iranreview.org/content/documents/restoring-congress-role-in-making-war.htm

But seeking authorization for the use of force from Congress as opposed to conducting consultations
AND
, also involve risks to the lives of America’s fighting men and women.

Congressional leadership’s key to foreign policy coherence—-solves multiple scenarios for extinction

Hamilton 2 – Lee H., President and Director of the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Vice Chairman of the 9/11 Commission, President’s Homeland Security Advisory Council, Former Member of the United States House of Representatives for 34 Years, Co-Chair of the Iraq Study Group, Formerly Special Assistant to the Director at the Woodrow Wilson Center, A Creative Tension: The Foreign Policy Roles of the President and Congress, p. 3-7

We face many dangers, however. The diversity of the security and economic threats
AND
such a foreign policy to advance our interests and values around the globe.

Congressional leadership through constraining the President key to relations with Japan

Zoellick, 00 (Robert B., Distinguished Visiting Fellow at the Peterson Institute for
AND
Foreign Policy", Survival 41.4, p. 31-39)

Decisions on the use of force The lines between the powers of Congress and the
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the effort to understand this dynamic system might even contribute to its evolution.

Alliance solves multiple threats—-global nuclear war

Gates 11 – Robert, U.S. Secretary of Defense, "U.S.-Japan Alliance a Cornerstone of Asian Security", Speech to Keio University, 1-14, http://www.defense.gov/speeches/speech.aspx?speechid=1529

Over the course of its history, the U.S.-Japan alliance has
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know less about regional threats and the military capabilities of our potential adversaries. 

US/Japan cooperation key to effective fusion energy—deeper cooperation necessary

CCFE, 00 (Coordinating Committee on Fusion Energy, June 22, "A Joint Report on the Progress ofU.S.-Japan Fusion Cooperation Program", http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:UtCr5jgcXRMJ:peaches. ph.utexas.edu/ifs/jift/JIFT_JOINT_RPT.pdf+26cd=126hl=en26ct=clnk26gl=us)

INTRODUCTION One of the initiatives developed at the 1978 Carter-Fukuda Summit was bilateral
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and enhance the collaboration accordingly between the U.S. and Japan.

Solves extinction

Freeman 10 (Marsh, Lecturer on Nuclear Physics – New York University, "The True History of The U.S. Fusion Program —And Who Tried To Kill It", 21^st Century Science 26 Technology, Winter 2009/2010, p. 15-17)

There is no disputing that the world is facing an energy crisis of vast proportions
AND
, and the descent has already begun. We must reverse it now.

Tournament: District | Round: 3 | Opponent: NU MP | Judge: stevenson, najor, fredrick

Congressional Leadership

Plan boosts Congressional power:

First: muscle. Boldly rejecting unitary use of force restores credibility

Bacevich 7 – Andrew, Professor of History and International Relations at Boston University and Ph.D. in American Diplomatic History from Princeton University, "Rescinding the Bush Doctrine", Boston Globe, 3-1, http://www.boston.com/news/globe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2007/03/01/rescinding_the_bush_doctrine/

RATHER THAN vainly sniping at President Bush over his management of the Iraq war,
AND
tarnished honor, and its standing in the eyes of the American people.

This spills over and builds institutional capacity for broader Congressional power —- active confrontation’s key

Schumer 7 – Charles E. Schumer, JD from Harvard Law School, AB in Politics from Harvard College, Senior United States Senator from New York, Youngest Representative in the History of New York State, "Under Attack: Congressional Power in the Twenty-First Century", Harvard Law 26 Policy Review, 1(1), http://web.archive.org/web/20120625034444/http://www.hlpronline.com/Vol1No1/schumer.pdf

Every basic civics text recites that our government is divided into three branches and that
AND
assertive branch of government. A Congress grown weak and compliant imperils democracy.

Second: experience and learning. Mandatory authorization increases Congressional engagement of foreign policy

Hunter 13 – Robert E. Hunter, Former U.S. Ambassador to NATO, Director of Middle East Affairs on the National Security Council Staff in the Carter Administration and Director of Transatlantic Security Studies at the National Defense University, "Restoring Congress’ Role in Making War", Iran Review, 9-1, http://www.iranreview.org/content/documents/restoring-congress-role-in-making-war.htm

But seeking authorization for the use of force from Congress as opposed to conducting consultations
AND
, also involve risks to the lives of America’s fighting men and women.

Both are essential to credible U.S. leadership—-Congressional incompetence erodes effective foreign policy, but checks emanating from war powers reinvigorate the branch

King 10 – Kay King, Vice President of Washington Initiatives at the Council on Foreign Relations, MA from Columbia University’s School of International and Public Affairs, "Congress and National Security", Council Special Report No. 58, November, http://www.cfr.org/congresses-parliaments-national-legislatures/congress-national-security/p23359

Most of the recent attention devoted to Congress’s dysfunction has centered on its impact on
AND
increase its ability to advance U.S. interests and values worldwide.

Interference is inevitable—-building Congressional power concentrates expertise and improves coordination

Shaw 12 – John T. Shaw, Vice President and Congressional Correspondent for Market News International, Richard G. Lugar, Statesman of the Senate: Crafting Foreign Policy from Capitol Hill, p. 47-48

Hamilton contends that the foreign policy capacity of Congress has grown both more sophisticated and
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often acts rashly and speaks in "a cacophony of conflicting voices."1

Coherent foreign policy guided by Congress solves a laundry list of existential threats

Hamilton 2 – Lee H., President and Director of the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Vice Chairman of the 9/11 Commission, President’s Homeland Security Advisory Council, Former Member of the United States House of Representatives for 34 Years, Co-Chair of the Iraq Study Group, Formerly Special Assistant to the Director at the Woodrow Wilson Center, A Creative Tension: The Foreign Policy Roles of the President and Congress, p. 3-7

We face many dangers, however. The diversity of the security and economic threats
AND
such a foreign policy to advance our interests and values around the globe.

Foreign policy coherence accesses every major impact—-extinction

Doherty 13 – Patrick Doherty, Director of the Smart Strategy Initiative at the New America Foundation, "A New U.S. Grand Strategy", Foreign Policy, 1-9, http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2013/01/09/a_new_us_grand_strategy?page=full

The strategic landscape of the 21st century has finally come into focus. The great
AND
, and no more, to implement this strategy at home and abroad.

Congressional confrontation of Obama is vital to solve maritime disputes—especially in the East and South China Seas

Ben Dolven et al. Specialist in Asian Affairs and Senior Director at BrooksBowerAsia Shirley A. Kan Specialist in Asian Security Affairs Mark E. Manyin Specialist in Asian Affairs January 30, 2013 "Maritime Territorial Disputes in East Asia: Issues for Congress" Congressional Research Service http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R42930.pdf

Overview Rising tensions over overlapping maritime territorial claims in East Asia have become a pressing
AND
are substantially affected by the growing tensions and increasingly frequent incidents at sea.

China/Vietnam conflict escalates to global nuclear war

Lieven, 12 (Anatol Lieven is a professor in the War Studies Department of King’s College London and a senior fellow of the New America Foundation in Washington, June 12, "Avoiding a U.S.-China War", The New York Times, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/13/opinion/ avoiding-a-us-china-war.html?_r=0)

In these disputes, Chinese nationalism collides with other nationalisms — particularly that of Vietnam
AND
— for example in Washington’s neglect of the crumbling states of Central America.

Escalation’s likely —- no defense

Buszynski, 12 (Leszek Buszynski, Visiting Fellow at the Strategic and Defence Studies Centre at the Australian National University, Spring, "The South China Sea: Oil, Maritime Claims, and U.S.—China Strategic Rivalry", The Washington Quarterly, 35:2, pp. 139-156, Center for Strategic and International Studies, http://csis.org/files/publication/twq12springbuszynski.pdf) 

The risk of conflict escalating from relatively minor events has increased in the South China
AND
from 1988—1992, the islands are occupied by the ASEAN claimants.

China and Japan war goes nuclear—draws in the U.S.

Eland 12-10 – Ivan Eland, Senior Fellow and Director of the Center on Peace 26 Liberty, The Independent Institute, "Stay Out of Petty Island Disputes in East Asia", Huffington Post, 2013, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/ivan-eland/stay-out-of-petty-island-_b_4414811.html

One of the most dangerous international disputes that the United States could get dragged into
AND
despite the economic costs.

China/Taiwan war causes extinction

Hunkovic 9 (Lee J, American Military University, "The Chinese-Taiwanese Conflict: Possible Futures of a Confrontation between China, Taiwan and the United States of America", http://www.lamp-method.org/eCommons/ Hunkovic.pdf)

A war between China, Taiwan and the United States has the potential to escalate
AND
outcome, therefore, other countries will not be considered in this study.

Tournament: texas all | Round: 9 | Opponent: all aff texas | Judge: all aff texas
U.S. is on the ground in Mali—-it’s destabilizing
Brown 14 – Vanda Felbab-Brown, Senior Fellow with the Center for 21st Century Security and Intelligence in the Foreign Policy Program at Brookings Institution, "Obama’s State of the Union Speech and the Seductiveness of Limited Intervention", 1-29, http://www.brookings.edu/blogs/up-front/posts/2014/01/29-obama-sotu-speech-seductiveness-limited-intervention-felbabbrown

In a typical President Barack Obama speech – beautifully crafted and inspirational, full of
AND
fragile deal between the Tuaregs and the government in Bamako is already fractured.

Executive control ensures mission creep and escalation—-Congressional approval solves
Friedersdorf 13 – Conor Friedersdorf, National Affairs Writer for the Atlantic, "A Broken Foreign Policy Establishment Turns to Mali", The Atlantic, 1-16, http://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/01/a-broken-foreign-policy-establishment-turns-to-mali/267231/

Today’s big news is that "the Obama administration is considering significant military backing for
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see fit to cover the news as if they have an important role.

Mali escalation spills over—-causes global conflict and outbreaks of cholera
Guterres 12 – António Guterres, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees and Former Prime Minister of Portugal, "Why Mali Matters", New York Times, 9-4, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/05/opinion/why-mali-matters.html?_r=0

Mali now matters more than ever. And it matters for two reasons. First
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becoming a threat to regional — and even global — peace and security.

Goes nuclear
Lancaster 00 – Carol, Associate Professor and Director of the Master’s of Science in Foreign Service Program at Georgetown University, "Redesigning Foreign Aid", Foreign Affairs, September / October, Lexis

THE MOST BASIC CHALLENGE facing the United States today is helping to preserve peace.
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weapons of mass destruction, these wars could prove more dangerous than ever.

Cholera spread causes extinction
Powell 00 – Corey S. Powell, Adjunct Professor of Science Journalism at NYU’s Science and Environmental Reporting Program and Senior Editor at Discover Magazine, "20 Ways the World Could End Swept Away", Discover, 21(10), October, http://ldolphin.org/twentyways.html

8. Global epidemics If Earth doesn’t do us in, our fellow organisms might
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disease, which humans helped transport as they migrated into the New World.

Requiring prior Congressional authorization for war deters adventurism
Bacevich 13 – Andrew, Professor of History and International Relations at Boston University and Ph.D. in American Diplomatic History from Princeton University, The New American Militarism, p. 205-210

There is, wrote H. L. Mencken, "always a well-
AND
point, citizens should replace them by electing people able to do so. 

The process makes conflict less likely, regardless of Congress’ response
Grynaviski 13 – Eric Grynaviski, Professor of Political Science at The George Washington University, "The Bloodstained Spear: Public Reason and Declarations of War", International Theory, 5(2), Cambridge Journals

Conclusion The burden of the argument, thus far, has been to show that
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diplomacy does not loom large as a central component of just war reasoning.

Tournament: Harvard | Round: 8 | Opponent: Michigan AP | Judge: Seth Gannon

Contention 3—-Prompt Global Strike

PGS is coming online—-effective systems solve missile threats from Iran, North Korea, and China

Acton 13 – James M. Acton, Senior Associate in the Nuclear Policy Program at the Carnegie Endowment, Ph.D. in Theoretical Physics from Cambridge University, "Silver Bullet? Asking the Right Questions About Conventional Prompt Global Strike", 9-3, http://carnegieendowment.org/files/cpgs.pdf

In spite of the expanding time frame and costs, the administration of President Barack
AND
needed to support CPGS, most notably intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance.

It’ll fail now because of a lack of Congressional control—-risks global nuclear war

Manzo 8 – Vince Manzo, CDI Research Assistant, "An Examination of the Pentagon’s Prompt Global Strike Program: Rationale, Implementation, and Risks", Center for Defense Information, http://www.infodefensa.com/wp-content/uploads/PGSfactsheet~~1~~.pdf

Introduction The Prompt Global Strike (PGS) program aims to enable the United States
AND
that is what Global Strike and Space is at the heart of."6

Lack of enabling capabilities ensures mission failure and errant strikes and miscalc

Manzo 8 – Vince Manzo, CDI Research Assistant, "An Examination of the Pentagon’s Prompt Global Strike Program: Rationale, Implementation, and Risks", Center for Defense Information, http://www.infodefensa.com/wp-content/uploads/PGSfactsheet~~1~~.pdf

Enabling Capabilities of PGS DOD has identified 1) intelligence collection and dissemination 2)
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intelligence capability must also exist in order to create an effective PGS capability.

PGS miscalc bypasses accidents defense and ensures escalation to full-scale nuclear war

Acton 13 – James M. Acton, Senior Associate in the Nuclear Policy Program at the Carnegie Endowment, Ph.D. in Theoretical Physics from Cambridge University, "Silver Bullet? Asking the Right Questions About Conventional Prompt Global Strike", 9-3, http://carnegieendowment.org/files/cpgs.pdf

Public and congressional debate about Conventional Prompt Global Strike has focused on one issue above
AND
, warhead ambiguity would be probably rather less serious than other potential risks.

Extinction

Mintz 1 (Morton, Former Chair – Fund for Investigative Journalism and Former Washington Post Reporter, The American Prospect, "Two Minutes to Launch", http://www.prospect.org/cs/articles?article=two_minutes_to_launch)

Hair-trigger alert means this: The missiles carrying those warheads are armed and
AND
would be, basically, a nuclear war by checklist, by rote."

Plan reasserts Congressional control of PGS—-spurs oversight and accountability

Farley 11 – Dr. Robert Farley, Assistant Professor at the Patterson School of Diplomacy and International Commerce at the University of Kentucky, "Over the Horizon: Libya, Airpower and Executive War Powers", World Politics Review, 6-29, http://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/articles/9321/over-the-horizon-libya-airpower-and-executive-war-powers

Nevertheless, airpower — including such offshore strike capabilities as submarine-launched cruise missiles
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deny those weapons to the president, or at least to demand accountability.

Tournament: Wake | Round: 1 | Opponent: Dartmouth CC | Judge: Katsulas
The United States federal government should require congressional authorization prior to initiating offensive use of armed forces, unless to repel attacks on the United States.

Tournament: Kentucky | Round: 8 | Opponent: Mo State BR | Judge: DHeidt

U.S. is pushing a norm of Responsibility to Protect —- alienates Russia and China and risks global great power conflict

Trombly 11 – Dan Trombly, Ph.D Candidate in International Relations at George Washington University, and#34;The Upending of Sovereigntyand#34;, 8-27, http://slouchingcolumbia.wordpress.com/2011/08/27/the-upending-of-sovereignty/

The other, truly potent danger of this new set of norms is that it
AND
seriously challenge the basis of amicable great power relations in the first place.

Threat of R2P ruins global cooperation necessary to stop famine, disease, and multiple flashpoints for wr

Trombly 11 – Dan Trombly, Ph.D. Candidate in International Affairs at George Washington University, and#34;Responsibility to Protect Ya Neckand#34;, 9-3, http://fearhonorinterest.wordpress.com/2011/09/03/responsibility-to-protect-ya-neck/

Advocates should recognize that the world is more peaceful now than it has ever been
AND
is that it sets in motion the consequences it most wishes to avoid.

Famine kills billions

Brown 5
(Lester, President – Earth Policy Institute, , People and the Planet, and#34;Falling Water Tables ’Could Hit Food Supply’and#34;, 2-7, http://www.peopleandplanet.net/doc.php?id=2424)

Many Americans see terrorism as the principal threat to security, but for much of
AND
For them, it is the next meal that is the overriding concern.and#34;

Plan stops U.S. implementation of R2P —- Presidents support it, but Congressional control blocks

Hanania 12 – Richard Hanania, JD Candidate at the University of Chicago Law School and Writer at The Atlantic, and#34;Humanitarian Intervention and the War Powers Debateand#34;, The Journal Jurisprudence, (2012) J. JURIS 47, http://www.jurisprudence.com.au/juris13/Hanania.pdf

What we see is a public that is generally indifferent to foreign affairs, but
AND
have more difficulty agreeing on a proper course of action in the former.
Just as the model predicts that the president is more likely to take action to
AND
,and#34;347 humanitarian interventions would become much less common, if not nonexistent.
Partisans of the R2P may seek to harness the presidential desire for glory, discussed
AND
necessary than ever to have Congress decide when the nation commits to war.

Tournament: Harvard | Round: 1 | Opponent: Kansas BC | Judge: Katsulas

The United States Federal Government should require Congressional authorization prior to initiating offensive use of military force, unless to repel attacks on the United States and enforce this restriction, among other measures, using Rules of Limited War that prohibits appropriations for military force lasting more than two years absent explicit congressional reauthorization providing no more than one year of additional appropriations after the initial two year time limit has expired.

Rules for Limited War Mechanism deters circumvention before it happens, restores credibility to the power of the purse threat, and solves executive reinterpretation via quantitative standards. Overcomes their arguments about congressional passivity.

Ackerman and Hathaway 11(Bruce, Sterling Professor of Law and Political Science at Yale Law School, Oona, Gerard C. and Bernice Latrobe Smith Professor of International Law, "Limited War and the Constitution: Iraq and the Crisis of Presidential Legality," January 1)
The radical transformation of limited into unlimited war was made pos- sible by the
AND
unilaterally after the final one-year wind-up appropriation has expired.

Tournament: Harvard | Round: 1 | Opponent: Kansas BC | Judge: Katsulas

2

Contention 2—-United Nations

Executive authority over use of force causes huge blowback against the UN

Stromseth 95 – Jane E. Stromseth, Associate Professor of Law at the Georgetown University Law Center, "Collective Force and Constitutional Responsibility: War Powers in the Post-Cold War Era", University of Miami, October, 50 U. Miami L. Rev. 145, Lexis

IV. Conclusion If Somalia and Haiti are any guide, we can expect to
AND
to maintain a posture of constructive international engagement in the challenging times ahead.

Plan locks in prior authorization for U.S. participation in UN operations—-builds support and solves funding and management shortfalls that deck UN effectiveness

McGuinness 9 – Margaret E. McGuinness, Associate Professor at the University of Missouri Law School, "The President, Congress and The Security Council: Counterterrorism And The Use Of Force Through The Internationalist Lens", Willamette Law Review, 45 Willamette L. Rev. 417, Spring, Lexis

A. The Value of More Explicit Ex Ante Congressional Involvement in U.S
AND
lead to congressionally imposed reversals that may prove more costly to the President.

Now’s key to lock in UN effectiveness—-ensures foreign policy legitimacy

Hirsch 9-24 – Michael Hirsh, Chief Correspondent for National Journal and Former Senior Editor and National Economics Correspondent for Newsweek, "Why the United Nations Is Suddenly Relevant", National Journal, 2013, http://www.defenseone.com/politics/2013/09/why-united-nations-suddenly-relevant/70738/?oref=d-skybox

That’s especially the view in Washington, which more often than not sees the big
AND
. So all eyes are on New York. Let the diplomacy begin.

Extinction

Thakur 12 – Ramesh Thakur, Professor of International Relations and Foundation Director of the Centre for Nuclear Nonproliferation and Disarmament at the Australian National University, "The United Nations in Global Governance: Rebalancing Organized Multilateralism for Current and Future Challenges", http://www.un.org/en/ga/president/65/initiatives/GlobalGovernance/Thakur_GA_Thematic_Debate_on_UN_in_GG.pdf

The world is interdependent in areas as diverse as financial markets, infectious diseases,
AND
harmonizing the ever?present national interests and forging the elusive international interest.

Even if it fails, maintaining it as a viable last resort is key to plantary survival

Schlesinger 3 – Steven, Director of the World Policy Institute at New School University, The Record (Kitchener-Waterloo, Ontario), "UN is the World’s Emergency Room; Its Survival Requires U.S. Commitment", 10-4, Lexis

The ultimate outcome of the San Francisco Conference is still not known. However,
AND
the world’s geopolitical emergency room. The question is whether it can survive.

Strong Congressional role spills up to the UN—-creates transparency and legitimacy vital for effective counterterrorism

McGuinness 9 – Margaret E. McGuinness, Associate Professor at the University of Missouri Law School, "The President, Congress and The Security Council: Counterterrorism And The Use Of Force Through The Internationalist Lens", Willamette Law Review, 45 Willamette L. Rev. 417, Spring, Lexis

This symposium is focused on the powers of the U.S. presidency,
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the use of force is essential to solidifying those norms as international law.

UN CT legitimacy stops AQIM—-threat’s escalating and destabilizes North Africa

Cockayne 10 – James Cockayne, Senior Fellow and Director of the New York Office of the Center on Global Terrror, et al., "Implementing the UN Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy in North Africa", September, http://www.globalct.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/09/North_Africa_Report_Final.pdf

It is the volatility and denationalized nature of this approach that leads counterterrorism experts,
AND
and civil society in developing plans for implementing that framework across the subregion.

AQIM’s on the cusp of launching large scale attacks that shatter regional stability

Resnick 13 – Laura Resnick, Research Assistant at University of Pennsylvania, "The Threat We Can’t Ignore", 1-24, http://redandblue.thedp.com/2013/01/the-threat-we-cant-ignore/

While some argue that the North African threat is overrated because AQIM largely seeks to
AND
reflect the fact that North Africa may be home to our next enemies.

Goes global—-draws in Russia and China—-and AQIM alone causes Sixth Fleet kickout

Alexander 9 – Yonah, Professor at the Inter-University Center for Terrorism Studies and Senior Fellow and Director of the International Center at the Potomac Institute for Policy Studies, et al., "Why The Maghreb Matters: Threats, Opportunities, and Options for Effective American Engagement in North Africa", Potomac Institute Special Report, March, http://www.potomacinstitute.org/images/studies/NorthAfricaPolicyPaper033109.pdf

THE CONCERN North Africa (the Maghreb) is a strategically important region for the
AND
a globalizing economy and increasing demands for broader political participation among their populations. 

Sixth Fleet stops Mediterranean gas conflict —- quickly escalates

Luft 10 – Gal, Executive Director at the Institute for the Analysis of Global Security, "Is a Mideast War Brewing over Natural Gas Find?", The Cutting Edge, 7-19, http://www.thecuttingedgenews.com/index.php?article=12392

The discovery of a gigantic natural gas reservoir less than 100 miles off Israel’s coast
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in order to deter Hezbollah and its patrons from operating in the region.

World War III

Jacobs 11 – Cindy, President at the Generals International, "Regional Conflict Could Spark World War III", Charisma, 4-13, http://www.charismamag.com/index.php/news-old/30682-regional-conflict-could-spark-world-war-iii

Many people have been asking me to update them regarding current events on several issues
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Islamic in spite of posturing as a secular state, this could change.

Tournament: Wake | Round: Octas | Opponent: West Georgia AM | Judge: Short, Matheson, Gordon, Donlan, Vega

Executive Precedents Advantage

Contention One is: Executive Precedents

Unchecked war power sets a precedent now.

Barron ’8
David J. Barron, Professor of Law at Harvard Law School and Martin S. Lederman, Visiting Professor of Law at the Georgetown University Law Center, "The Commander in Chief at the Lowest Ebb — A Constitutional History", Harvard Law Review, February, 121 Harv. L. Rev. 941, Lexis
Thus, as future administrations contemplate the extent of their own discretion at the "
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a workable alternative, such forgetting will be far less likely to occur.

The precedent spills-beyond war power. Means executives are unchecked on many issues.

Barron ’8
David J. Barron, Professor of Law at Harvard Law School and Martin S. Lederman, Visiting Professor of Law at the Georgetown University Law Center, "The Commander in Chief at the Lowest Ebb — A Constitutional History", Harvard Law Review, February, 121 Harv. L. Rev. 941, Lexis
Moreover, this historical account performs at least one function beyond supplying information relevant to
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for a change that risks such a fundamental revision of our national identity.

It gets modeled worldwide. Debates about the precedent check preventive wars and other abuses of executive authority.

Sloane ’8
(Robert Sloane, Associate Professor of Law, Boston University School of Law, 2008 Boston University Law Review, April, 88 B.U.L. Rev. 341, Lexis)
There is a great deal more constitutional history that arguably bears on the scope of
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to U.S. national security in the twenty-first century.

Legislative restraints means fewer Executives starting fewer conflicts worldwide. For executive authority, teaching the heuristic of work within institutions is a pre-req.

Grynaviski ’13
Eric Grynaviski, Professor of Political Science at The George Washington University, "The Bloodstained Spear: Public Reason and Declarations of War", International Theory, 5(2), Cambridge Journals

Conclusion The burden of the argument, thus far, has been to show that
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well as more recent issues such as the targeted killing of political leaders.

Pragmatism’s key in this context. "Root cause" and "cure-alls" won’t check violence.

Bacevich ’13
Andrew, Professor of History and International Relations at Boston University and Ph.D. in American Diplomatic History from Princeton University, The New American Militarism, p. 205-210

There is, wrote H. L. Mencken, "always a well-
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point, citizens should replace them by electing people able to do so. 

Legislative checks solve both advantages. Without them, executive-induced casualties will persist.

Zelizer ’11
Julian E. Zelizer, Professor of History and Public Affairs at Princeton University, "War Powers Belong to Congress and the President", CNN Opinion, 6-27, http://www.cnn.com/2011/OPINION/06/27/zelizer.war.powers/index.html
But the failure of Congress to fully participate in the initial decision to use military
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declare war forces voters to think about the decision sooner rather than later.

Preventive war standard causes large death tolls globally.

Williams ’12
Ryan – Assistant Professor, Western State University College of Law – "DANGEROUS PRECEDENT:
AMERICA’S ILLEGAL WAR IN AFGHANISTAN" – University of Pennsylvania Journal of International Law, Vol. 33, No. 2, 2012 – https://www.law.upenn.edu/live/files/145-williams33upajintll5632011pdf

THE UNINTENDED CONSEQUENCES OF FIGHTING THIS ILLEGAL WAR America should be concerned about setting a
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. The negative consequences of establishing such a precedent should not be underestimated.

Drones Advantage

Contention Two – Drones

Lack of a legislative role cedes war-fighting to the executive. This drives secretive policy – including the squo’s non-transparent drone policy.

Bacevich 13
~Andrew, professor of history and international relations (Boston University), Ph.D. in American Diplomatic History (Princeton), "Andrew Bacevich, The Eternal War?" The Nation Institute, 5/28, http://www.tomdispatch.com/blog/175704/~~

Twelve and a half years after Congress didn’t declare war on an organization of hundreds
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Middle East and what’s left of American democracy and liberties are further destabilized.

Drones can’t be wished-away – they’ll exist in other nations. Even if Congress did little, public light matters. A more-transparent precedent dissuades global use and halts a distinct mechanism for violence versus dissent.

Boyle ’13
Dr. Michael Boyle has an interdisciplinary background. He is currently an Assistant Professor of Political Science at La Salle University in Philadelphia. He was previously a Lecturer in International Relations and Research Fellow at the Centre for the Study of Terrorism and Political Violence (CSTPV) at the University of St. Andrews. He holds a Ph.D. from The University of Cambridge, 2005; an M.P.P. from the Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, 2001; a M.Phil, from the University of Cambridge, 1999 – "The costs and consequences of drone warfare" – International Affairs; 89: 1 (2013) 1–29 – http://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/public/International20Affairs/2013/89_1/89_1Boyle.pdf

An important, but overlooked, strategic consequence of the Obama administra - tion’s embrace
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to shrug off the loss of life that drones inflict on others today.

Drones cause deaths. This ev also proves international experiences are a "starting-point boomerang" shaping oppressive domestic practices.

Graham ’10
STEPHEN GRAHAM is Professor of Cities and Society at Newcastle University and previously taught at Durham and MIT, among other universities. Cities Under Siege: the New Military Urbanism – p. xiii-xvii

Such fantasies of high -tech omnipotence are much more than science fiction. As
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security operations, is the second key feature of the new military urbanism.

Solvency 21

The President of the United States should not be authorized to initiate offensive military force without prior legislative Declaration of War.

Macro-Institutional starting points are often critiqued. But micro-starting points of SELF or societal, instead of State, transformation are less effective in this narrow context.

Stuhr ’8
(John J, Professor of Philosophy and American Studies, and Chair, Department of Philosophy at Emory University "A Terrible Love of Hope",  The Journal of Speculative Philosophy New Series, Volume 22, Number 4, Project Muse)

And then what, now what? What should a meliorist do? Terrible lovers
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peace must be, in the broadest sense of the term, educational. 

(  ) Particularity Thesis – We can advance accurate and contingent "small-T" truth claims without linking to broader theorization.

Reinalda ’4
(et al; Dr. Bob Reinalda, Prof of Institutional Management Research at
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APSA. – Decision Making Within International Organizations – page 27-28)

Middle-range theories The discussion between rationalists and constructivists is not limited to substantive
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international relations discipline will improve the study of decision making within international organizations.

The ballot’s role should include State theorization. Even if Plan’s never passes, our framework advances a broader heuristic imperative. This teaches a State-inclusive civic engagement that spills to many issues.

Liu ’12
Et al – Eric Liu is the founder of Citizen University. He served as
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civic_learning/crucible/documents/crucible_508f.pdf?

A Crucible Moment likewise calls for transformations necessary for this generation. A daunting one is to eliminate persistent inequalities, especially those in the United States determined by income and race, in order to secure the country’s economic and civic future. But the academy must also be a vehicle for tackling other pressing issues—growing global economic inequalities, climate change and environmental degradation, lack of access to quality health care, economic volatility, and more. To do that requires expanding students’ capacities to be civic problem-solvers using all their powers of intellect and inventiveness. Sixty-five years after the Truman Commission, the nation faces a different national and global dynamic than in the aftermath of World War II. A Crucible Moment casts its National Call to Action in the context of five trends that shape this historic juncture. Increase in Democratic nations: In 1950, just over 25 percent of countries in the world could be characterized as electoral democracies (Diamond 2011). In 2010, 59 percent of countries could be characterized in this way (Puddington 2011). Moreover, "in 1975 the number of countries that were ’not free’ exceeded those that were ’free’ by 50 percent, ~but~ by 2007 twice as many countries were ’free’ as were ’not free’ (Goldstone 2010, 1). According to an official statement released by the Arab Network for the Study of Democracy, the Arab Spring of 2011 brought people in seven countries to the streets united by three notions: freedom, dignity, and justice (Lee 2011). These shifts offer significant opportunities for revitalizing all democracies, both old and new, as modern democracies learn collectively how to recalibrate democratic processes to meet the new demands of a globalized age. Intensified Global Competition: After World War II, the United States competed only with the Soviet Union for global domination as other nations were busy either putting their devastated economies back in order or developing them. Today, powerful new economies exist on every continent. The European Union is challenging US economic domination, and there is a decided tilt toward the Asian markets of China, India, and Japan. In this globalized world, the budgets of many multinational companies are larger than those of many countries, and they are not bound in their practices by any one nation. Dangerous Economic Inequalities: While the United States had been moving toward a diamond-shaped economy with a larger middle class, recent years have seen an increased gulf between rich and poor across US households. Economist Edward N. Wolff notes, for example, that between 2007 and mid 2009 there was "a fairly steep rise in wealth inequality ~where~ the share of the top 1 percent advanced from 34.6 to 37.1 percent, that of the top 5 percent from 61.8 to 65 percent, and that of the top quintile from 85 to 87.7 percent, while that of second quintile fell from 10.9 to 10 percent, that of the middle quintile from 4 to 3.1 percent, and that of the bottom two quintiles from 0.2 to -0.8 percent" (Wolff 2010, 33). In sum, as of 2009, nearly 90 percent of wealth was concentrated among the top 20 percent of US households, while just over 10 percent of wealth was spread across the remaining 80 percent. One result of this hyper-consolidation of wealth is that for the first time in US history, the younger generation is not on a trajectory to achieve their parents’ economic level. These same economic inequalities are even more dramatic in a global context. According to former UN Humanitarian Relief Coordinator Jan Egeland. "The richest individuals are richer than several of the poorest nations combined—a few billionaires are richer than the poorest two billion people" ( http://ucatlas. ucsc.edu/income.php). Economist Branko Milanovic (2000) has found that the ratio of the average income of the top 5 percent of the world’s population to the bottom 5 percent increased from 78 to 1 in 1988 to 114 to 1 in 1993. In the case of sub-Saharan Africa, a whole region has been left behind: it will account for almost one-third of world poverty in 2015, up from one-fifth in 1990 (United Nations Development Programme 2007). Demographic Diversity: The United States is "the most religiously diverse nation on earth" (Eck 2002, 4), and is more racially diverse than ever. By 2045 communities of color will constitute at least 50 percent nationwide (Roberts 2008), as is already the case in some states. Immigrants now make up 12.5 percent of the US population (Gryn and Larsen 2010). Intensified immigration and refugee populations swirling around the entire globe have resulted in similarly dramatic demographic shifts on almost every continent. Having the capacity to draw on core democratic processes to negotiate the increased diversity will secure a stable future. technological Advances: In 1945, televisions were a rarity and many sections of the country were just getting telephone lines and electricity. The impact of computers and information technology today is reminiscent of the transformation wrought by the Industrial Age: all facets of everyday livingare affected, from communication to health care, from industry to energy, and from educational pedagogies to democratic practices. The Internet— particularly the development of social media to organize groups of people around commonly shared values—influences democratic engagement and activism, as dramatically illustrated by the 2011 Arab Spring and the 2008 US presidential election. While the historical dynamics that shaped the Truman Commission’s findings may differ from today’s political and social environment, a number of stubborn problems that existed then continue to erode the foundation of our democracy. The most pressing of these are unequal access to college and economic lethargy. Although access has increased dramatically, unequal access continues to plague democracy’s ability to thrive. Students are underprepared for college because of what writer and educator Jonathan Kozol (1991) refers to as "the savage inequalities" of the nation’s K–12 system. The poorer the young person, the less likely he or she will go to college. Yet SAT scores, which directly correlate with income, continue to determine many students’ qualifications to attend college. Failure to graduate from high school shuts off college as an option for nearly 30 percent of our nation’s young people; researchers James Heckman and Paul LaFontaine (2007) note that high school graduation rates have leveled or declined over four decades, and the "majority/minority graduation rate differentials are substantial and have not converged over the past 35 years." In a new foreword to The Drama of Diversity and Democracy: Higher Education and American Commitments, Ramón A. Gutiérrez illustrates Latinos’ attrition along the educational pipeline in the United States. While they are the fastest growing racial minority, surpassing the percentage of African Americans, education is not providing a democratic pathway to economic independence or social mobility. Drawing on research by Armida Ornelas and Daniel Solórzano, Gutiérrez explains that "of every one hundred Latinos who enroll in elementary school, fifty-three will drop out," and of the forty-seven who graduate from high school, "only twenty-six will pursue some form of postsecondary education" and "only eight will graduate with baccalaureate degrees" (Gutiérrez 2011, xvi). In the face of troubling discrepancies among racial and socioeconomic groups, there is some good news in the longer term regarding the nation’s increasing college graduation rates. In 1940, only 24 percent of the population 25 years and older had completed high school, and just under 5 percent held a bachelor’s degree (Bauman and Graf 2003). Seventy years later, those numbers have progressed dramatically. "Of the 3.2 million youth age 16 to 24 who graduated from high school between January and October 2010, about 2.2 million (68.1 percent) were enrolled in college in October 2010" (Bureau of Labor Statistics 2011). Overall college graduation rates have also improved: the Digest of Education Statistics 2010, for example, reports that for those seeking the bachelor’s degree, the rate of graduation within four years has reached 36.4 percent. Within six years, it jumps to 57.2 percent. For those seeking an associate’s degree, the graduation rate within six years is 27.5 percent (Snyder and Dillow 2011). According to the 2011 Education at a Glance report completed by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the labor force in the United States is among the world’s top five most highly educated. However, OECD’s report explains, "The US is the only country where attainment levels among those just entering the labor market (25–34 year-olds) do not exceed those about to leave the labor market (55–64 yearolds)." As a result, "among 25–34 year-olds, the US ranks 15th among 34 OECD countries in tertiary attainment" (OECD 2011, 2). In other words, the educational attainment level in the United States has remained relatively flat while other countries have rapidly increased and surpassed us. An attainment rate that qualified the United States to be near the top of the world several decades ago is not a guarantee of retaining world leadership educationally. Neither graduation rates nor attainment rates that were sufficient in the past are satisfactory today, when two-thirds of future jobs will require some type of postsecondary credential. There is a strong link between educational level and preparedness for a newly demanding workplace, just as there is a strong link between educational level and other civic indicators, including voting. A high-quality education, workforce preparation, and civic engagement are inextricably linked. A college education—who has access to it, and who completes the degree—affects personal ambitions, the economy, and civic participation. After World War II, the United States invested in higher education as a vehicle to jump-start economic expansion. The community college sector in particular was dramatically expanded to provide people with new access to college and new technical skills. In today’s economy, higher education is once again viewed as a way graduates can achieve greater economic mobility and our lethargic economy can be stimulated. In 1947, with the world in shambles, new structures, alliances, and programs were created in an attempt to avert future catastrophic wars, to reconstruct multiple economies, and to establish common principles of justice and equality. As the Truman Commission demonstrates, political and educational leaders agreed that higher education was needed to educate students for international understanding and cooperation to secure a sustainable future. Although today’s world is more globally integrated financially, culturally, and demographically, it is also fraught with civil and regional wars, clashing values, and environmental challenges wrought by rapacious consumption and carelessness. Citizens who have never examined any of these issues will be left vulnerable in the face of their long-term consequences. How to achieve sustainability—understood in its broadest definition as including strong communities, economic viability, and a healthy planet—is the democratic conundrum of the day. If it is not solved, everyone’s future well-being will be in jeopardy. Meanwhile, students’ economic options are heavily influenced by two long-term trends: the requirement of a college credential for the twenty-firstcentury employment market, and the inadequacy of federal and state funds that could make higher education more widely available. After World War II, the majority of jobs in the United States did not require a college degree, yet many—especially in unionized fields—offered a middle-class living wage and benefits. Today, a college degree is the credential that a high school diploma once was. According to a 2010 report, Projections of Jobs and Education Requirements through 2018, of the 46.8 million new and replacement job openings in 2018, 34 percent will require a bachelor’s degree or better, while 30 percent will require at least some college or a two-year associate’s degree. (Carnevale, Smith, and Strohl 2010, 110). As the report’s authors describe this societal sea change, "…postsecondary education or training has become the threshold requirement for access to middle-class status and earnings in good times and bad. It is no longer the preferred pathway to middle-class jobs—it is, increasingly, the only pathway" (110). This higher educational bar is imposed as colleges and universities continue to cope with the effects of the recession and budget deficits at both state and federal levels. Higher education is often the vehicle that states use to balance their budgets. The sector does well in good times and is hit harder in lean ones. According to a 2011 report issued by the National Conference of State Legislatures, total state support for higher education institutions fell by 1.5 percent in FY 2009. Without federal funding from the American Reinvestment and Renewal Act (ARRA), this decline would have been 3.4 percent. In 2010, twenty-three states decreased state support of public higher education institutions, even after receiving ARRA funds. Eight of these states reported drops in higher education funding exceeding 5 percent (National Conference of State Legislatures 2011). These compounding factors produce our crucible moment today. The country, the economy, and the world demand a different kind of expertise than was required of graduates after World War II. The kind of graduates we need at this moment in history need to possess a strong propensity for wading into an intensely interdependent, pluralist world. They need to be agile, creative problem solvers who draw their knowledge from multiple perspectives both domestic and global, who approach the world with empathy, and who are ready to act with others to improve the quality of life for all. Another name for these graduates is democratic citizens. In the face of the constellation of forces described in the previous chapter, this crucible moment in US history might look daunting. Certain lessons from the Truman Commission, however, should spur people to action, not paralysis. Despite the ravages of World War II and the resultant worldwide economic devastation, the Commission was ambitious in its scope, calling for bold leadership and investment of public funds and reaffirming the public mission of higher education as a reservoir for progress for the nation and the world. That same visionary leadership is necessary today. The Truman Commission also imagined long-term, systemic change— within both higher education and the nation at large—as an answer to the dire challenges of the day. In a revolutionary stand, the Commission named racial segregation, inequality of any kind, and intolerance as impediments to economic advancement and affronts to democratic values. This twentyfirst-century juncture likewise demands deep structural reforms in higher education and the broader society. As Charles Quigley’s (2011) epigraph to this report states, "Each generation must work…to narrow the gap between the ideals of this nation and the reality of the daily lives of its people." Today, colleges and universities must once again serve as "the carrier~s~ of democratic values, ideals, and process," but for a new age confronting new challenges (President’s Commission on Higher Education 1947a). Putting civic learning at the core rather than the periphery of primary, secondary, and postsecondary education can have far-reaching positive consequences for the country and the economy. It can be a powerful counterforce to the civic deficit and a means of replenishing civic capital. That restored capital, in turn, can function as a self-renewing resource for strengthening democracy and re-establishing vitality, opportunity, and development broadly across the socioeconomic spectrum and even beyond national borders. As Martin Luther King Jr. (2011) accurately noted, we are all "tied in a single garment of destiny." If indeed we seek a democratic society in which the public welfare matters as much as the individual’s welfare, and in which global welfare matters along with national welfare, then education must play its influential part to bring such a society into being. As Ira Harkavy (2011) asserts in the epigraph to this chapter, that will require a commitment to "develop and maintain the particular type of education system conducive to it." A Crucible Moment posits that the nature of that particular type of education must be determined at the local institutional level in order to construct civic-minded colleges and universities. In Chapter I we argued that such campuses are distinguished by a civic ethos governing campus life; civic literacy as a goal for every graduate; civic inquiry integrated within majors, general education, and technical training; and informed civic action in concert with others as lifelong practice. If Chapter I established the urgency of reinvesting in education for democracy and civic responsibility and Chapter II demonstrated that ambitious action was possible in the face of earlier difficult historical eras, this chapter comprises a National Call to Action: recommendations that can begin to erase the current civic learning shortfall. These recommendations are meant to shift and enhance the national dialogue about civic learning and democratic engagement and to mobilize constituents to take action. Everyone has a role and everyone must act, with participation and deliberation across differences as vibrant democracies require. We invite each constituent group to use this report and its National Call to Action as a guideline to chart a course of action—tailoring, for example, the strategies and tasks to be accomplished, the entities responsible for each effort, the partners to be engaged, the timeline for action, and other particulars—that would most effectively respond in the exigencies of this crucible moment. We encourage readers to expand and refine this report’s recommendations and make them locally relevant by institution, region, issue, and demographics. In Appendix A, we provide a mechanism for doing so in the form of tools to help each participating entity develop its own Civic Investment Plan. Readers are encouraged to work collectively within self-designated spheres to develop a plan for exactly what they can and will do to make civic learning and democratic engagement a meaningful national priority. As described in the opening pages of this report, the National Call to Action is the product of a broad coalition of people. The idea for bringing such a group together began with the US Department of Education, which commissioned the report, funded it, and nurtured it. From the beginning, the department acknowledged the widespread civic engagement movement that has been working for decades both on and off campus. The design for the project deliberately drew from that expertise and charged leaders in civic renewal efforts to envision the next frontiers of civic learning and democratic engagement in higher education. Assuming that the best solutions would be generated by people responsible for moving from a set of recommendations to purposeful action, the department charged the National Task Force on Civic Learning and Democratic Engagement with making recommendations—to the government and to higher education—that were informed by the expertise and experience of the leaders and essential partners of the civic renewal movement already underway. A staunch partner in promoting civic learning and democratic engagement throughout the process, the department nonetheless made clear that A Crucible Moment was to be the Task Force’s report not the department’s, prepared in dialogue with a very broad community of advisers. Those advisers who were participants in five different national roundtables, and whose names are listed in Appendix C are civic practitioners, scholars, and administrators. They generated what became an evolving set of specific recommendations included in this chapter. The National Task Force continued to refine the recommendations in subsequent drafts. There was consensus among participants that a successful Call to Action would require multiple leaders collaborating from varying constituencies both within and beyond higher education and within and beyond government agencies. The broad swath of recommendations that emerged reflects that consensus. K–12 education is the cornerstone for both functioning democracies and college readiness. As Ira Harkavy (2011) said in his address at the international conference "Reimagining Democratic Societies," "no effective democratic schooling system, no democratic society. Higher education has the potential to powerfully contribute to the democratic transformation of schools, communities, and societies." Despite all the investment in improving the level of schooling in the United States, particularly over the past quarter century, far too little attention has been paid to education for democracy in public schools. In their foreword to the report Guardian of Democracy: The Civic Mission of Schools, former Justice Sandra Day O’Connor and former Congressman Lee Hamilton note, "Knowledge of our system of governance and our rights and responsibilities as citizens is not passed along through the gene pool. Each generation of Americans must be taught these basics" (2011, 5). The arguments for the civic purpose of K–12 education and the arguments for the civic mission of higher education are similar. Education for democratic engagement is even more urgent than it has ever been, given America’s current diverse populace and global interdependencies. Revealingly, the definition of civic learning put forth in Guardian of Democracy encompasses a continuum across educational levels—in both pedagogy and curricula—that is consistent with an enlarged definition of civic literacies cited in Chapter I of this report, the framework for twenty-first-century civic learning provided in figure 1, and the examples of campus practices featured in Chapter V. Research in 2009 about civic learning in K–12 by Judith Torney-Purta and Britt S. Wilkenfeld echoes findings in higher education. Torney-Purta and Wilkenfeld suggest, for example, that the educational outcomes proceeding from well-constructed civics curricula overlap with the knowledge and skills needed in the workplace. Similarly, their research finds that engaged pedagogies in K–12 that accelerate empowered, student-centered learning also enhance both constructive civic/political participation skills and parallel skills of collaboration, so valuable in the workplace. Finally, they find that classrooms that are civically oriented across multiple kinds of subjects also contribute to students’ motivation to do well and, therefore, to the likelihood that students will stay in school. The Campaign for the Civic Mission of Schools therefore argues there should be three C’s driving reform in K–12 education: college, career, and citizenship (see www.civicmissionofschools.org). Unfortunately, the current public discourse—driven by multiple public, business, and governmental sectors—focuses disproportionately on the first two. The 2011 Educational Testing Services report The Mission of High School voices this concern in a chapter called "A Narrowing of Purpose and Curriculum?" Diane Ravitch is quoted about the grievous consequences to democracy’s health of not setting high expectations across an array of subjects in schools but instead focusing on only a few subjects that are narrowly judged in high stakes testing: "A society that turns its back on the teaching of history encourages mass amnesia, leaving the public ignorant of the important events and ideas of the human past and eroding the civic intelligence needed for the future. A democratic society that fails to teach the younger generation the principles of self-government puts these principles at risk" (Barton and Coley 2011, 25–26). The omission of civic goals for education occurs even in the face of evidence that civic engagement contributes to academic success. As reported by the Center for Information and Research on Civic Learning and Engagement (CIRCLE), "Longitudinal studies show that young people who serve their community and join civic associations succeed in school and in life better than their peers who do not engage" (Levine 2011, 15). Parallel findings across K–12 and postsecondary education suggest that (1) comprehensive civic goals need to be included in standards to be assessed at state and national levels; (2) civic development for teachers in schools needs to be supported; and (3) schools of education need to integrate civic learning and democratic engagement into the curricula that prepare our nation’s teachers. Recognizing the need for a reinvestment in civic learning, thoughtful K–12 educators and leaders have developed a framework that accords with the vision and argument of this report (see particularly the Campaign for the Civic Mission of Schools 2011a, 2011b, www.civicmissionofschools.org/site/ resources/civiccompetencies.html, and Guardians of Democracy). The timing is right, then, to form sturdy bridges to civic learning and democratic engagement across students’ lifelong learning trajectories. Without K–12 education laying the foundations for civic responsibility and developing students’ understandings of democracy’s history and principles, any hopes of raising national civic literacy and civic agency are likely to be undermined, both for college students and, even more so, for high school graduates who may never enroll in college.

The heuristic’s impact is enormous. It includes this room, but extends beyond it.

Liu ’12
Et al – Eric Liu is the founder of Citizen University. He served as
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civic_learning/crucible/documents/crucible_508f.pdf?

We therefore invite all stakeholders in America’s future to join together to become civic agents
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action, particularly to address gaps identified through your use of the matrix.

There are many ways to spin "civic engagement", but Liu confirms our read. It’s NOT ENOUGH FOR THEM TO WIN "STATE BAD", they also need to win "State Shunning" is the right strategy.

Liu ’13
(Eric Liu is the founder of Citizen University and author of several books, including "The Gardens of Democracy" and "The Accidental Asian." He served as a White House policy adviser for President Bill Clinton. "What Russell Brand got wrong about voting" – CNN – Nov 5^th – http://www.cnn.com/2013/11/05/opinion/liu-not-voting-for-suckers/index.html?hpt=hp_t4)

That certainly was the message of a recent interview and essay by the comedian Russell
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more likely to usher in what you fear — voting or not voting?

"State" or "Framework" indicts miss that we aren’t standard rational policy making. Heuristics teach both specific plans AND revise general problem-solving skills. Yes, the Neg has a heuristic – but our ev assumes policy heuristics and plausible Alts.

Hendrick ’94
Rebecca Hendrick – Professor and Director of Graduate Studies at Department of Public Administration, University of Illinois at Chicago – "A Heuristic Approach to Policy Analysis and the Use of Sensitivity Analysis" – Source: Public Productivity 26 Management Review, Vol. 18, No. 1 (Autumn, 1994), pp. 37-55 – Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3380693 .

Newell and Simon (1972) were among the first scholars in the area of
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the big ones. ~Gordon, 1969, pp. 166-1671

If we lose pre-fiat, then we do nothing. But non-concrete activism is WORSE THAN NOTHING. No Framework QUESTION can veer this round from the NEXUS QUESTION OF CONCRETE ALTS. Without those, we’re awful activists.

Bryant ’12 
(EDITED FOR GENDERED LANGUAGE – the author said "she" and it was replaced with the word "to" – Levi Bryant is currently a Professor of Philosophy at Collin College. In addition to working as a professor, Bryant has also served as a Lacanian psychoanalyst. He received his Ph.D. from Loyola University in Chicago, Illinois, where he originally studied ’disclosedness’ with the Heidegger scholar Thomas Sheehan. Bryant later changed his dissertation topic to the transcendental empiricism of Gilles Deleuze,  "Critique of the Academic Left", http://larvalsubjects.wordpress.com/2012/11/11/underpants-gnomes-a-critique-of-the-academic-left/)

I must be in a mood today– half irritated, half amused –because
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. Instead we prefer to shout and denounce. Good luck with that.

Even if "fiat’s not real", and Affs don’t control levers of power today, we advance a heuristic. Without this heuristic of fiat, we’ll re-enforce dangerous nihilism.

Hoff ’6
(et al, Dr. Dianne Hoff, professor in the College of Education and Human Development and president of Faculty Senate, University of Maine, Journal of Educational Administration, 44:3 – available via Emerald Management 120 database).

There is no question that helping educational leadership students become self-analytical and reflect
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. This is an arena from which a new social order can emerge.

And, if the debate winds-up a "tie", presumption should shift in favor of change – best avoids nihilism.

Serial Policy Failure wrong and Policy Nihilism Bad.

Tallis ’97
Raymond Tallis, Professor of Geriatric Medicine at the University of Manchester – Enemies of Hope: A Critique of Contemporary Pessimism, Published by Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 0312173261, p. 407-409

If we deny or rubbish the progress that mankind has already made, and at
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poverty of spirit and meanness of mind will not have the last word. 

We’re not pro-State, but we’re "anti-anti State". Some things can ONLY be solved "through the system". Lifting existing POTUS authority is such an issue:

Barbrook ’97
(Dr. Richard, School of Westminster, Nettime, "More Provocations", 6-5, ¶ http://www.nettime.org/Lists-Archives/nettime-l-9706/msg00034.html)
I thought that this position is clear from my remarks about the ultra-left
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can be a fun artistic pose. However, human suffering is not.

Switch-side debate on policy implementation questions promotes critical thinking, decision-making skills, fights dogma, and makes us better advocates – analyzing competing alternatives is key

Keller et al 1
(Thomas E., assistant professor, School of Social Service Administration, University of Chicago, James K. Whittaker, professor, University of Chicago, Tracey K. Burke, doctoral student, School of Social Work, University of Washington, "Student debates in policy courses: Promoting policy practice skills and knowledge through active learning," Journal of Social Work Education 37.2, Spring/Summer 2001, Ebsco)

The authors believe that structured student debates have great potential for promoting competence in policy
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services. I learned more than I ever would have any other way."

Tournament: GSU | Round: 1 | Opponent: emory | Judge: 

Intervention

Contention 1 —- Intervention

Congress has abdicated war powers, leaving no check on unitary executive war-making

Pinhiero 11 – John C. Pinhiero, Associate Professor of History at Aquinas College, ""Hostilities" and War Powers: Let’s Choose the Constitution", History News Service, 6-29, http://historynewsservice.org/2011/06/hostilities-and-war-powers-lets-choose-the-constitution/

Last week Rep. Jerrold Nadler of New York warned that "if we don’t
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, as in the case of Rep. Nadler, it can happen.

Executive war power structurally ensures groupthink and escalatory interventions

Fleischman 10 – Matthew Fleischman, J.D. Candidate at New York University School of Law, "A Functional Distribution of War Powers", New York University Journal of Legislation and Public Policy, 13 N.Y.U. J. Legis. 26 Pub. Pol’y 137, Lexis

While Nzelibe and Yoo’s model is clearly plausible, it misses certain critical institutional constructs
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it is the institutional design that would better accommodate functionalists’ concerns and desires.

Those go nuclear —-

Accidents and miscalc

Adler 8 – David Gray, Professor of Political Science at Idaho State University, "The Judiciary and Presidential Power in Foreign Affairs: A Critique", 6-1, http://www.freerangethought.com/index.php?option=com_content26task=blogsection26id=626Itemid=41

~{11~} The structure of shared powers in foreign relations serves to deter abuse
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to an examination of the judiciary’s contribution to executive hegemony in foreign affairs.

Terrorist spoofing

Blumrosen 11 – Alfred W. Blumrosen, Professor Emeritus at the Rutgers School of Law and Steven M. Blumrosen, J.D., Quinnipiac University School of Law, "Restoring the Congressional Duty to Declare War", Rutgers Law Review, Winter, 63 Rutgers L. Rev. 407, Lexis

Conclusion We have placed a heavy burden on June 1-4, 1787 to
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This would suit only those who believe that western civilization is an abomination.

High tempo interventions draw in outside powers

Friedman 11 – George Friedman, President of Stratfor Global Forecasting, "What Happened to the American Declaration of War?", Stratfor, 3-29, http://www.stratfor.com/weekly/20110328-what-happened-american-declaration-war

An Increasing Tempo of Operations All of this came just before the United States emerged
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-or-death matter, a tonic for our adolescent body politic.

Requiring prior Congressional authorization for war deters adventurism

Dickerson 9 – Annette Warren Dickerson, Director of Education 26 Outreach for the Center for Constitutional Rights, "Restore. Protect. Expand. Amend the War Powers Resolution", Center for Constitutional Rights White Paper, http://ccrjustice.org/files/CCR_White_WarPowers.pdf

Reform the War Powers Resolution The War Powers Resolution has failed. Every president since
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disguised as preemptive war, has no place in constitutional or international law.

Warfighting

Power projection structurally fails because operations are guided by incoherent strategies disconnected from national political will

Gallagher 11 – Lieutenant Colonel Joseph V. Gallagher III, United States Marine Corps, "Unconstitutional War: Strategic Risk in the Age of Congressional Abdication", Parameters, Summer, http://strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pubs/parameters/articles/2011summer/gallagher.pdf

Understanding the Gap Since World War II, a wide gap has developed between Congress
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wage fewer of them—and be far better positioned to win them.

Libya removed all remaining checks on unilateral executive war-making —- ruins accountability and signal of unified resolve

Webb 13 – Jim Webb, Former U.S. Senator from Virginia and Secretary of the Navy in the Reagan Administration, "Congressional Abdication", The National Interest, 3-1, http://nationalinterest.org/article/congressional-abdication-8138?page=show

The president followed no clear historical standard when he unilaterally decided to use force in
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America is united and not acting merely at the discretion of one individual.

That crushes unit cohesion, morale, and allied support —- Congressional approval’s key

Frye 2 – Alton Frye, Presidential Senior Fellow Emeritus and Director of the Program on Congress and Foreign Policy at the Council on Foreign Relations, "Applying the War Powers Resolution to the War on Terrorism", Testimony Before the Senate Judiciary Committee, 4-17, http://www.cfr.org/terrorism/applying-war-powers-resolution-war-terrorism/p4514

4. CONSENSUS IS ESSENTIAL TO NATIONAL COHESION The case for active, continuing congressional
AND
that Congress will play its proper constitutional role in the war on terrorism.

Plan boosts credible negotiating power by locking in public and Congressional support prior to conflict

Gelb 5 – Leslie H. Gelb, President Emeritus of the Council on Foreign Relations and Anne-Marie Slaughter, Dean of the Woodrow Wilson School of International and Public Affairs, "Declare War", The Atlantic, 11-1, http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2005/11/declare-war/304301/?single_page=true
*Gender Modified

In the wake of the Vietnam War, Congress tried to fix this problem by
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support, ~they~ he would gain enormous credibility for his threats.

Effective power projection stops hotspot escalation to nuclear war

Kagan 7 – Frederick Kagan, Resident Scholar at the American Enterprise Institute, and Michael O’Hanlon, Senior Fellow and Sydney Stein Jr. Chair in Foreign Policy Studies at the Brookings Institution, "The Case for Larger Ground Forces", Stanley Foundation Report, April, http://stanleyfoundation.org/publications/other/Kagan_OHanlon_07.pdf

We live at a time when wars not only rage in nearly every region but
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Such a measure is not only prudent, it is also badly overdue.

Executive war power ruins soft power and global alliances

Schiffer 9 – Adam Schiffer, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Political Science at Texas Christian University, and Carrie Liu Currier, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Political Science at Texas Christian University, "War Powers, International Alliances, the President, and Congress", http://apcentral.collegeboard.com/apc/public/repository/US_Gov_Balance_of_Power_SF.pdf

The president’s advantages over Congress in the foreign policy realm have consequences far beyond the
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and how they are used to establish the legitimacy of American foreign policy.

Grounding use of force in constitutionally-based SOP creates a perception of benign hegemony and encourages international cooperation based on rule of law

Ikenberry 1 – G. John, Peter F. Krogh Professor of Global Justice at the School of Foreign Service at Georgetown University, "Getting Hegemony Right - Analysis of the United States as a "Hyperpower" Nation", The National Interest, Spring, Lexis

A critical ingredient in stabilizing international relations in a world of radical power disparities is
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do so now, when America’s relative power may be at its peak.
Existential threats are likely —- democratic alliances founded on mutual restraint build capacity to prevent and mitigate their impact Ikenberry 11 – G. John Ikenberry, Peter F. Krogh Professor of Global Justice at the School of Foreign Service at Georgetown University, "A World of Our Making", Democracy: A Journal of Ideas, Issue ~2321, Summer, http://www.democracyjournal.org/21/a-world-of-our-making-1.php?page=all Grand Strategy as Liberal Order Building American dominance of the global system will eventually yield to the rise of other powerful states. The unipolar moment will pass. In facing this circumstance, American grand strategy should be informed by answers to this question: What sort of international order would we like to see in place in 2020 or 2030 when America is less powerful? Grand strategy is a set of coordinated and sustained policies designed to address the long-term threats and opportunities that lie beyond the country’s shores. Given the great shifts in the global system and the crisis of liberal hegemonic order, how should the United States pursue grand strategy in the coming years? The answer is that the United States should work with others to rebuild and renew the institutional foundations of the liberal international order and along the way re-establish its own authority as a global leader. The United States is going to need to invest in alliances, partnerships, multilateral institutions, special relationships, great-power concerts, cooperative security pacts, and democratic security communities. That is, the United States will need to return to the great tasks of liberal order building. It is useful to distinguish between two types of grand strategy: positional and milieu oriented. With a positional grand strategy, a great power seeks to diminish the power or threat embodied in a specific challenger state or group of states. Examples are Nazi Germany, Imperial Japan, the Soviet bloc, and perhaps—in the future—Greater China. With a milieu-oriented grand strategy, a great power does not target a specific state but seeks to structure its general international environment in ways that are congenial with its long-term security. This might entail building the infrastructure of international cooperation, promoting trade and democracy in various regions of the world, and establishing partnerships that might be useful for various contingencies. My point is that under conditions of unipolarity, in a world of diffuse threats, and with pervasive uncertainty over what the specific security challenges will be in the future, this milieu-based approach to grand strategy is necessary. The United States does not face the sort of singular geopolitical threat that it did with the fascist and communist powers of the last century. Indeed, compared with the dark days of the 1930s or the Cold War, America lives in an extraordinarily benign security environment. Rather than a single overriding threat, the United States and other countries face a host of diffuse and evolving threats. Global warming, nuclear proliferation, jihadist terrorism, energy security, health pandemics—these and other dangers loom on the horizon. Any of these threats could endanger Americans’ lives and way of life either directly or indirectly by destabilizing the global system upon which American security and prosperity depends. What is more, these threats are interconnected—and it is their interactive effects that represent the most acute danger. And if several of these threats materialize at the same time and interact to generate greater violence and instability, then the global order itself, as well as the foundations of American national security, would be put at risk. What unites these threats and challenges is that they are all manifestations of rising security interdependence. More and more of what goes on in other countries matters for the health and safety of the United States and the rest of the world. Many of the new dangers—such as health pandemics and transnational terrorist violence—stem from the weakness of states rather than their strength. At the same time, technologies of violence are evolving, providing opportunities for weak states or nonstate groups to threaten others at a greater distance. When states are in a situation of security interdependence, they cannot go it alone. They must negotiate and cooperate with other states and seek mutual restraints and protections. The United States can-not hide or protect itself from threats under conditions of rising security interdependence. It must get out in the world and work with other states to build frameworks of cooperation and leverage capacities for action against this unusually diverse, diffuse, and unpredictable array of threats and challenges. This is why a milieu-based grand strategy is attractive. The objective is to shape the international environment to maximize your capacities to protect the nation from threats. To engage in liberal order building is to invest in international cooperative frameworks—that is, rules, institutions, partnerships, networks, standby capacities, social knowledge, etc.—in which the United States operates. To build international order is to increase the global stock of "social capital"—which is the term Pierre Bourdieu, Robert Putnam, and other social scientists have used to define the actual and potential resources and capacities within a political community, manifest in and through its networks of social relations, that are available for solving collective problems. If American grand strategy is to be organized around liberal order building, what are the specific objectives and what is the policy agenda? There are five such objectives. First, the United States needs to lead in the building of an enhanced protective infrastructure that helps prevent the emergence of threats and limits the damage if they do materialize. Many of the threats mentioned above are manifest as socioeconomic backwardness and failure that cause regional and international instability and conflict. These are the sorts of threats that are likely to arise with the coming of global warming and epidemic disease. What is needed here is institutional cooperation to strengthen the capacity of governments and the international com-munity to prevent epidemics or food shortages or mass migrations that create global upheaval—and mitigate the effects of these upheavals if they occur. The international system already has a great deal of this protective infrastructure—institutions and networks that pro-mote cooperation over public health, refugees, and emergency aid. But as the scale and scope of potential problems grow in the twenty-first century, investments in these preventive and management capacities will also need to grow. Early warning systems, protocols for emergency operations, standby capacities, etc.—these safeguards are the stuff of a protective global infrastructure. Second, the United States should recommit to and rebuild its security alliances. The idea is to update the old bargains that lie behind these security pacts. In NATO, but also in the East Asia bilateral partner-ships, the United States agrees to provide security protection to the other states and brings its partners into the process of decision-making over the use of force. In return, these partners agree to work with the United States—providing manpower, logistics, and other types of support—in wider theaters of action. The United States gives up some autonomy in strategic decision-making, although it is more an informal restraint than a legally binding one, and in exchange it gets cooperation and political support. Third, the United States should reform and create encompassing global institutions that foster and legitimate collective action. The first move here should be to reform the United Nations, starting with the expansion of the permanent membership on the Security Council. Several plans have been proposed. All of them entail adding new members—such as Germany, Japan, India, Brazil, South Africa, and others—and reforming the voting procedures. Almost all of the candidates for permanent membership are mature or rising democracies. The goal, of course, is to make them stakeholders in the United Nations and thereby strengthen the primacy of the UN as a vehicle for global collective action. There really is no substitute for the legitimacy that the United Nations can offer to emergency actions—humanitarian interventions, economic sanctions, uses of force against terrorists, and so forth. Public support in advanced democracies grows rapidly when their governments can stand behind a UN-sanctioned action. Fourth, the United States should accommodate and institution-ally engage China. China will most likely be a dominant state, and the United States will need to yield to it in various ways. The United States should respond to the rise of China by strengthening the rules and institutions of the liberal international order—deepening their roots, integrating rising capitalist democracies, sharing authority and functional roles. The United States should also intensify cooperation with Europe and renew joint commitments to alliances and multilateral global governance. The more that China faces not just the United States but the entire world of capitalist democracies, the better. This is not to argue that China must face a grand counterbalancing alliance against it. Rather, it should face a complex and highly integrated global system—one that is so encompassing and deeply entrenched that it essentially has no choice but to join it and seek to prosper within it. The United States should also be seeking to construct a regional security order in East Asia that can provide a framework for managing the coming shifts. The idea is not to block China’s entry into the regional order but to help shape its terms, looking for opportunities to strike strategic bargains at various moments along the shifting power trajectories and encroaching geopolitical spheres. The big bargain that the United States will want to strike is this: to accommodate a rising China by offering it status and position within the regional order in return for Beijing’s acceptance and accommodation of Washington’s core strategic interests, which include remaining a dominant security provider within East Asia. In striking this strategic bargain, the United States will also want to try to build multilateral institutional arrangements in East Asia that will tie China to the wider region. Fifth, the United States should reclaim a liberal internationalist public philosophy. When American officials after World War II championed the building of a rule-based postwar order, they articulated a distinctive internationalist vision of order that has faded in recent decades. It was a vision that entailed a synthesis of liberal and realist ideas about economic and national security, and the sources of stable and peaceful order. These ideas—drawn from the experiences with the New Deal and the previous decades of war and depression—led American leaders to associate the national interest with the building of a managed and institutionalized global system. What is needed today is a renewed public philosophy of liberal internationalism—a shift away from neoliberal-ism—that can inform American elites as they make trade-offs between sovereignty and institutional cooperation. Under this philosophy, the restraint and the commitment of American power went hand in hand. Global rules and institutions advanced America’s national interest rather than threatened it. The alternative public philosophies that have circulated in recent years—philosophies that champion American unilateralism and disentanglement from global rules and institutions—did not meet with great success. So an opening exists for America’s postwar vision of internationalism to be updated and rearticulated today. The United States should embrace the tenets of this liberal public philosophy: Lead with rules rather than dominate with power; provide public goods and connect their provision to cooperative and accommodative policies of others; build and renew international rules and institutions that work to reinforce the capacities of states to govern and achieve security and economic success; keep the other liberal democracies close; and let the global system itself do the deep work of liberal modernization. As it navigates this brave new world, the United States will find itself needing to share power and rely in part on others to ensure its security. It will not be able to depend on unipolar power or airtight borders. It will need, above all else, authority and respect as a global leader. The United States has lost some of that authority and respect in recent years. In committing itself to a grand strategy of liberal order building, it can begin the process of gaining it back.

SOP

Unchecked war power sets a precedent that causes the executive to broadly ignore Congressional controls

Barron 8 – David J. Barron, Professor of Law at Harvard Law School and Martin S. Lederman, Visiting Professor of Law at the Georgetown University Law Center, "The Commander in Chief at the Lowest Ebb — A Constitutional History", Harvard Law Review, February, 121 Harv. L. Rev. 941, Lexis

Thus, as future administrations contemplate the extent of their own discretion at the "
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for a change that risks such a fundamental revision of our national identity.

U.S. war powers are modeled internationally —- the precedent of unilateral executive authority ruins global human rights norms and encourages preemptive conflict in multiple hotspots

Sloane 8 – Sloane, Associate Professor of Law, Boston University School of Law, 2008 (Robert, Boston University Law Review, April, 88 B.U.L. Rev. 341, Lexis)

There is a great deal more constitutional history that arguably bears on the scope of
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to U.S. national security in the twenty-first century.

Collapse of human rights norms causes global WMD conflict

Burke-White 4 – William W., Lecturer in Public and International Affairs and Senior Special Assistant to the Dean at the Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs, Princeton University and Ph.D. at Cambridge, "Human Rights and National Security: The Strategic Correlation", The Harvard Human Rights Journal, Spring, 17 Harv. Hum. Rts. J. 249, Lexis

This Article presents a strategic—as opposed to ideological or normative—argument that
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U.S.-U.N. cooperation on human rights issues.

Conflict’s likely in Taiwan, Georgia, and India/Pakistan —- U.S. signal’s key

Rehman 12 – Fehzan Rehman, International Relations at the University of Westminster, "Analyzing America’s National Security Strategy", e-International Relations, 9-13, http://www.e-ir.info/2012/09/13/analyzing-americas-national-security-strategy/

Another implication on sovereignty, due to the NSS, was, yet again,
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emption and preventive wars against Taiwan for the promotion of its Chinese values.

Preemption ruins U.S. leverage to deescalate regional crises —- goes nuclear

Steinberg 2 – James B. Steinberg, Vice President and Director of Foreign Policy at the Brookings Institution, Michael E. O’Hanlon and Susan E. Rice, "The New National Security Strategy and Preemption", Brookings Policy Brief Series, December, http://www.brookings.edu/research/papers/2002/12/terrorism-ohanlon

The Dangers of Legitimating Preemption A final concern relates to the impact of the precedent
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also illustrate the dangers of legitimating an easy and early recourse to preemption.

Requiring formal declaration of war restores Congressional war powers and balances SOP by checking the Executive

Weinberger 9 – Seth Weinberger, Assistant Professor in the Department of Politics and Government at the University of Puget Sound, M.A. and Ph.D. in Political Science from Duke University, "Balancing War Powers in an Age of Terror", The Good Society, 18(2), http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/good_society/v018/18.2.weinberger.html

The key to developing a constitutionally, legally, and practically sound balanced theory of
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-so to undo that separation, even in the face of war.

Congress must be the first mover

Hansen 9 – Hansen and Friedman, professors of law at the New England School of Law, 2009 (Victor and Lawrence, The Case for Congress: Separation of Powers and the War on Terror, p.130)

The problem, of course, is that much of this congressional involvement has come
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more difficult for Congress to stand up to an assertive and aggressive president.

Only formal, structural checks restrain preemption

Damrosch 97 – Lori Fisler Damrosch, Professor of Law at the Columbia University School of Law, "Use of Force and Constitutionalism", Columbia Journal of Transnational Law, 36 Colum. J. Transnat’l L. 449, Lexis

Structural-institutional explanations, on the other hand, point to features of liberal
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perception of Spain in 1898), the restraint may fail to take effect.

Plan/Solvency

The United States Federal Government should require Congressional authorization prior to initiating warfare, unless to repel attacks on the United States.

Plan’s the perfect balance that checks the Executive but preserves defensive capabilities

Lobel 8 – Jules Lobel, Professor at University of Pittsburgh Law School, "War Powers for the 21st Century: The Constitutional Perspective", Testimony Before the Subcommittee on International Organizations, Human Rights and Oversight Committee on Foreign Affairs U.S. House of Representatives, 4-10, http://democrats.foreignaffairs.house.gov/110/lob041008.htm

III Revising the War Powers Resolution I believe that it is necessary and possible to
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if you can fix any limit to his power in this respect.22

Obama will comply

Barron 8 – David J. Barron, Professor of Law at Harvard Law School and Martin S. Lederman, Visiting Professor of Law at the Georgetown University Law Center, "The Commander in Chief at the Lowest Ebb — A Constitutional History", Harvard Law Review, February, 121 Harv. L. Rev. 941, Lexis

In addition to offering important guidance concerning the congressional role, our historical review also
AND
the executive branch itself for most of our history of war powers development.

Plan overcomes barriers to enforcement

Lobel 9 – Jules Lobel, Professor of Law at the University of Pittsburgh. "Restore. Protect. Expand. Amend the War Powers Resolution". Center for Constitutional Rights White Paper, http://ccrjustice.org files CCR_White_WarPowers.pdf

The War Powers Resolution should explicitly prohibit executive acts of war without previous Congressional authorization
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a presidential violation of this principle should be explicitly made an impeachable offense.

Even if initial non-compliance occurs, Court enforcement solves

Garcia 12 – Michael John Garcia, Legislative Attorney at the Congressional Research Service, "War Powers Litigation Initiated by Members of Congress Since the Enactment of the War Powers Resolution", Congressional Research Service Report, 2-17, http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/RL30352.pdf

The courts have made clear, however, that while formidable, none of the
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unlikely that the courts will venture into this politically and constitutionally charged thicket.

Tournament: Harvard | Round: 3 | Opponent: Wayne JS | Judge: JP
The United States Federal Government should require a congressionally issued declaration of war prior to initiating offensive use of military force, unless to repel attacks on the United States and enforce this restriction, among other measures, using Rules of Limited War that prohibits appropriations for military force lasting more than two years absent explicit congressional reauthorization providing no more than one year of additional appropriations after the initial two year time limit has expired.

Tournament: Kentucky | Round: Doubles | Opponent: Mary Wash MP | Judge: Hayes, Seth Gannon, Nate Cohn, JP, Frap

The United States Federal Government should require Congressional authorization prior to initiating offensive use of military force, unless to repel attacks on the United States and enforce this restriction by prohibiting funds for unauthorized use, stating that a violation would create an impasse with Congress and that separation of powers principles require the Court to decide, stating that a violation is an impeachable offense, and by creating a point of order mechanism that allows any legislator to object to authorization of offensive use of military force and, if sustained, automatically amend such authorization to prohibit funding for such activities.

Point of order mechanism stops circumvention

Mitchell 9 – Jonathan, Assistant Professor of Law at the George Mason University School of Law, "Legislating Clear-Statement Regimes in National-Security Law", Georgia Law Review, Summer, 43 Ga. L. Rev. 1059, Lexis

b. point-of-order mechanisms Congress could establish more effective clear-
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in a chamber declines to raise a point of order to the appropriations legislation

It’s effective

Mitchell 9 – Jonathan, Assistant Professor of Law at the George Mason University School of Law, "Legislating Clear-Statement Regimes in National-Security Law", Georgia Law Review, Summer, 43 Ga. L. Rev. 1059, Lexis

All of this has spurred proposals to strengthen the clear-statement regimes in Congress’s
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to establish an effective clear-statement regime in national-security law.

Mitchell votes aff

Mitchell 9 – Jonathan, Assistant Professor of Law at the George Mason University School of Law, "Legislating Clear-Statement Regimes in National-Security Law", Georgia Law Review, Summer, 43 Ga. L. Rev. 1059, Lexis

INTRODUCTION¶ Congress’s national-security legislation will often require clear and specific¶ congressional
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used to concoct congressional "authorization" from vague or ambiguous statutory language.

Tournament: Fullerton | Round: 2 | Opponent: Michigan AP | Judge: Seth Gannon

Plan: The United States Federal Government should require Congressional authorization through a policy trial modeled on impeachment proceedings prior to the introduction of United States Armed Forces into combat.

Ex ante policy trials avoid circumvention

Buchanan 8 – Bruce Buchanan, Professor of Government at the University of Texas at Austin, "Presidential Accountability for Wars of Choice", Issues in Governance Studies, Number 22, December, http://www.brookings.edu/~~/media/research/files/papers/2008/12/3020war20buchanan/1230_war_buchanan.pdf

Implications These cases of Korea, Vietnam and Iraq display regrettable patterns of ill-
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reduce the system-draining recriminations that followed Korea, Vietnam and Iraq.

Tournament: Wake | Round: 5 | Opponent: Iowa HK | Judge: Demming

Only confidence building measures like the plan make the US credible in negotiations – provides the impetus to spur a deal

Jervis 13(Robert, Adlai E. Stevenson Professor of International Affairs at Columbia University, Foreign Affairs, "Getting to Yes With Iran The Challenges of Coercive Diplomacy," February, http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/138481/robert-jervis/getting-to-yes-with-iran)
Although the United States and its European allies are talking with Iran now, these
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action and deterrence, those are the qualities it will need to summon.

Only a risk of a turn—-threat’s aren’t credible because of U.S. domestic pressure—-stepping back only decreases the motive for prolif

Walt 13 – Stephen M. Walt, Professor of International Relations at Harvard University, "What Would Alex George Say About Coercing Iran?", Foreign Policy, 3-14, http://walt.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2013/03/14/coercing_iran_what_would_alex_george_say

Will the U.S. effort to coerce Iran succeed? For the past
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breakout capacity) and making the acceptable terms of a deal more explicit. 

This is Iran’s perception

Mousavian 13 – Seyed Hossein Mousavian, Associate Research Scholar at the Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs at Princeton University, "US Military Threats Toward Iran
Do Not Work", Al Monitor, 4-21, http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2013/04/us-iran-threats-counter.html

Two theories may explain the recent amplified US threats against Iran. First, some
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an effective weapon, as Iranians believe it can only go so far.

Tournament: Kentucky | Round: 8 | Opponent: Mo State BR | Judge: DHeidt

Empiricism disproves their hypothetical examples

Lobel 8 – Jules Lobel, Professor at University of Pittsburgh Law School and President of the Center for Constitutional Rights, and#34;War Powers for the 21st Century: The Constitutional Perspectiveand#34;, Federal News Service, 4-10, Lexis

As Lou Fisher has often pointed out, that really stands on its head. The whole intent of the Framers of the Constitution was quite the reverse. So Congressman Rohrabacher’s instinct really leads down, I think, two impractical cul de sacs. And the only way out of that is to enact framework legislation, like the War Powers Resolution, that makes the use of the appropriations or war powers practicable.
REP. DELAHUNT: I don’t know whether it was Dr. Fisher or Mr. Lobel, but one of you made the statement that there has not been a single instance of hostilities which would have warranted the kind of approach that Mr. Rohrabacher would have made.
MR. LOBEL: (Off mike.)
REP. DELAHUNT: Hit the button again. Thank you.
MR. LOBEL: If you look at the history over the last 30 or 40 years, all of the uses of force that the president claimed are so essential to national security, in each of those cases there could have been time to come to Congress and get congressional authorization. None of them was such an emergency that Congress couldn’t have been involved. The only question —
REP. DELAHUNT: Which we did in the case of Iraq.
MR. LOBEL: Right. And the only question is then, why not go to Congress? And the reason you don’t want to go to Congress is because Congress is slow, Congress might be divided. But the point is is that if Congress is divided —
REP. DELAHUNT: Congress is a constitutional nuisance to the executive.
MR. LOBEL: Yeah, that would be what I would say. But it’s a nuisance which the Framers thought was an important check on unilateral war-making.

Congress is fast —- solves almost any crisis

Drum 11 – Kevin Drum, Columnist for Mother Jones, and#34;The (Lack of) Power of Congressand#34;, Mother Jones, 3-21, http://www.motherjones.com/kevin-drum/2011/03/lack-power-congress

Rather, there are certain specific areas where Congress has deliberately given up its authority
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many rules and it’s impossible in practice for Congress to consider them all.
Each of these theories has problems. With very rare exceptions, there’s enough time
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-down vote in the House and Senate, no amendments allowed.1

Especially Obama

Barnes, 13 (Fred – commentator and member of the board of trustees and senior fellow of The Fund for American Studies, 9/16, and#34;Hesitation, Delay, and Unreliabilityand#34;, The Weekly Standard 19.2, http://www.weeklystandard. com/articles/hesitation-delay-and-unreliability_752788.html)

War presidents don’t quibble. They don’t leak. They don’t go AWOL. They
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-war stage, or he’s an altogether different kind of war president.
In his World War II memoirs, Winston Churchill offered this lesson: and#34;In war, resolution; in defeat, defiance; in victory, magnanimity; in peace, good will.and#34; Being resolute—that is, steadfast and determined—comes first. It is normally regarded as a critical component of success.
Obama and resolve don’t seem to mix. As the death toll in the Syrian
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been killed in a gas attack by the Syrian military on August 21.
A bombing assault was planned for Labor Day weekend to and#34;deterand#34; further use of chemical weapons and and#34;degradeand#34; Assad’s arsenal. But Obama abruptly jettisoned that plan and announced he would seek the approval of Congress. An attack, if there is to be one, could be postponed for weeks, jeopardizing what’s known as and#34;peakand#34; military readiness.
Earlier, in June, the White House announced it would send small arms and munitions to the Syrian rebels. By early September, however, no weapons had reached the rebels.
So hesitation, delay, and unreliability are the hallmarks of Obama’s approach to Syria, for now. This amounts to presidential and#34;fecklessness,and#34; says Steven F. Hayward, author of Greatness: Reagan, Churchill, and the Making of Extraordinary Leaders. and#34;A strong war leader needs one quality above others,and#34; he says, and#34;a ruthlessness to see it through, coupled with a touch of legerdemain to keep our enemies off balance and fearful of what the United States might do.and#34;
Obama certainly lacks that and#34;touchand#34; of cunning. There’s a gulf between his mission and his military. His goal is the removal of Assad as Syrian leader —in other words, regime change. But Obama insists a bombing attack in Syria would be solely to stop further use of chemical weapons. He’s publicly ruled out a wider assault aimed at regime change or deployment of ground troops.

Ignore theoretical comparisons

Pearlstein 9 – Deborah N. Pearlstein, Visiting Scholar and Lecturer in Public and International Affairs, Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs, Princeton University, and#34;Form and Function in the National Security Constitutionand#34;, Connecticut Law Review, July, 41 Conn. L. Rev. 1549, Lexis
*Gender Modified

This brings us to the new functionalists’ role effectiveness approach. For whatever one researcher
AND
emergency-driven congressional engagement and deferential (if any) judicial review.
But such comparative competence accounts are misleading in several ways. They ignore the complexity
AND
courts (or Congress) may be more effective than the executive alone.
Perhaps most important, the new functionalist role effectiveness view ignores the structural reality that
AND
section explores a role effectiveness approach that could take this reality into account.

Tournament: Kentucky | Round: 6 | Opponent: Northwestern MP | Judge: AK

Extra-constitutional action solves the DA but avoids creating a legal loophole

Lobel 95 – Jules Lobel, Professor at University of Pittsburgh Law School, ""Little Wars" and the Constitution", University of Miami Law Review, October, 50 U. Miami L. Rev. 61, Lexis

There are, of course, hypothetical situations that do not meet the test I
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~ kindle emergencies" n66 has proved true in the war powers area.

Prez will circumvent in a crisis but generally comply

Margulies 11 – Joseph Margulies, Clinical Professor at the Northwestern University School of Law, and Hope Metcalf, Lecturer at Yale Law School, "Terrorizing Academia", Journal of Legal Education, 60(3), February, p. 446-447

Proceduralists viewed emergency overreactions as both regrettable and inevitable.54 "Times of heightened
AND
-thinking and the adage that "hard cases make bad law."63

Cp alone ruins solvency – he’ll use it to justify strikes all over
Lobel 95 – Jules Lobel, Professor at University of Pittsburgh Law School, ""Little Wars" and the Constitution", University of Miami Law Review, October, 50 U. Miami L. Rev. 61, Lexis

IV. Procedural v. Substantive Reform Approaches Professor Ely and I start from the
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nation and later seeking congressional ratification for their actions is an appropriate response.

Loopholes dilute the norm

Nowrot 98 – Karsten Nowrot, LL.M., Indiana University School of Law – Bloomington, and Emily W. Schabacker, B.A. McGill University (Canada); M.A., University of East Anglia (England); J.D., Indiana University School of Law-Bloomington, "The Use of Force to Restore Democracy: International Legal Implications of the ECOWAS Intervention in Sierra Leone", American University International Law Review, 14 Am. U. Int’l L. Rev. 321, Lexis

A legal construction excluding the use of force for "benign ends" n108 from
AND
, n113 which apply to the United Nations Charter, are employed. n114

No signal

Cooper 9 – Ryan Cooper, Political Theory at University of Texas at Austin, "Meaning versus Authority: A Defense Extra-Constitutional Prerogative", Spring, http://lilt.ilstu.edu/critique/Spring2009docs/Ryan20Cooper.pdf

Critics might assert that precedents do not have this sort of "generative power"
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meaning ensures that the grievance "this is unconstitutional" retains its potency.

Tournament: GSU | Round: 1 | Opponent: emory | Judge: 

And – legacy costs

Ackerman 13 – Bruce Ackerman, Sterling Professor of Law at Yale Law School, "Oversight Now", Foreign Policy, 6-11, http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2013/06/11/oversight_now_FISA_executive_congress?page=full

Partisans of the status quo will claim that a serious congressional effort will only make
AND
the country to heed Madison’s warning about the dangers of "continual warfare."

Officials think Congress has enforcement power —- they’ll self-restrain

Cole 11 – David Cole, Professor at the Georgetown University Law Center, "Where Liberty Lies: Civil Society and Individual Rights After 9/11", The Wayne Law Review, Winter, 57 Wayne L. Rev. 1203, Lexis

In my view, Posner and Vermeule simultaneously underestimate the constraining force of law and
AND
law will have substantial deterrent effect, with or without actual court decisions.

Tournament: GSU | Round: 1 | Opponent: emory | Judge: 

Obama won’t push- not willing to negotiate

CNN, 9-15-2013 http://politicalticker.blogs.cnn.com/2013/09/15/obama-economic-advisers-refrain-no-debt-ceiling-negotiations/

President Barack Obama and his closest advisers are making it clear: They will not
AND
, that we should not be negotiating over whether to pay our bills."

Recent speeches prove

IBT- International Business Times, 9-16-2013 http://www.ibtimes.com/president-obama-i-will-not-negotiate-debt-ceiling-1406580

In a White House speech that resembled Obama’s campaign-style rhetoric from last year
AND
Obamacare, the president said, "would be the height of irresponsibility."

Tournament: GSU | Round: 1 | Opponent: emory | Judge: 

Plan causes Executive bargaining that boosts the agenda

McGinnis 93 – John O. McGinnis, Assistant Professor at the Cardozo School of Law and Former Deputy Assistant Attorney General in the Office of Legal Counsel, Department of Justice, "Constitutional Review by the Executive in Foreign Affairs and War Powers: A Consequence of Rational Choice in the Separation of Powers", Law and Contemporary Problems, 56(4), p. 301-302

Another reason for suggesting that accommodation and bargaining will often be at the center of
AND
, making the power of constitutional review itself a subject of implicit bargaining.
Finally, even after a substantive power is formally assigned to one branch by either
AND
and state legislatures by the Court in Employment Division v. Smith.41

Tournament: Wake | Round: 3 | Opponent: Kentucky GR | Judge: Andres Gannon

Approval is key to strategy

Gallagher 11 – Lieutenant Colonel Joseph V. Gallagher III, United States Marine Corps, "Unconstitutional War: Strategic Risk in the Age of Congressional Abdication", Parameters, Summer, http://strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pubs/parameters/articles/2011summer/gallagher.pdf

Clausewitz asserted war is politics by other means. Therefore, in the American democracy
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achieve the uncertain objectives of the military actions that began extra-constitutionally.

Doesn’t bind or solve signal

Kall 7 (Rob, Executive Editor, Publisher and Website Architect of OpEdNews.com, Host of the Rob Kall Bottom Up Radio Show (WNJC 1360 AM), and Publisher of Storycon.org, President of Futurehealth, Inc, and an inventor . He is also published regularly on the Huffingtonpost.com, "Forget About "Sense of Congress" Legislation by Bush Enablers," January 24, http://www.opednews.com/populum/printer_friendly.php?content=a26id=29762)

There’s no doubt. Bush is the worst president in US history. That’s a
AND
them. So tell your legislators. Use the action page link below.

Counterplan doesn’t signal morale or unified purpose

Weingast 98 – Matthew S. Weingast, Adjunct Professor at the Joint Military Intelligence College, Associate on the National Security Team at Booz-Allen 26 Hamilton, M.S. in Strategic Intelligence from The Defense Intelligence College, Former Strategic Intelligence Officer for The Joint Chiefs of Staff, "The Strategic Necessity Perspective: A New Approach to Solving Old Constitutional War Powers Questions", USAFA Journal of Legal Studies, 8 USAFA J. Leg. Stud. 109, Lexis

The Strategic Necessity Perspective: What It Is and How It Works Simply put,
AND
to declare war remains completely relevant and critical to today’s war powers questions.

Formal checks are key – otherwise congress will just punt the decision

Healy 8 – Gene Healy, Vice President at the Cato Institute, The Cult of the Presidency: America’s Dangerous Devotion to Executive Power, p. 273

In 2005, foreign policy luminaries Leslie H. Gelb and Anne-Marie Slaughter
AND
treasure in conflicts that were not carefully examined at the outset.1*

Tournament: Wake | Round: 3 | Opponent: Kentucky GR | Judge: Andres Gannon

Sanctions will pass and even if they hold off Congress will scuttle the deal

WP, 11-4-2013 http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2013/11/14/obamas-approaching-an-iran-deal-heres-why-congress-might-stop-it/

The Obama administration is working toward a possible deal with Iran and the European Union
AND
exactly profiles in courage, but perhaps this is just how things work.

Kerry’s pushing

LA Times, 11-13-2013 http://www.latimes.com/world/la-fg-kerry-iran-20131114,0,1995719.story~23axzz2kffLB6WI

Key senators remained undecided Wednesday on whether to impose more economic sanctions on Iran after
AND
when a deal to limit its nuclear program may be close at hand.

Multiple issues thump

WP, 10-16-2013 http://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/obama-plans-to-renew-immigration-climate-change-efforts/2013/10/16/d0a96cbe-367b-11e3-be86-6aeaa439845b_story_1.html

President Obama, fresh off a trouncing of congressional Republicans over the government shutdown,
AND
to be simultaneously cooperating across party lines on other issues," he said.
Sanctions and coercive diplomacy fail
Jervis 13(Robert, Adlai E. Stevenson Professor of International Affairs at Columbia University, Foreign Affairs, "Getting to Yes With Iran The Challenges of Coercive Diplomacy," February, http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/138481/robert-jervis/getting-to-yes-with-iran)
The United States’ recent record of coercive diplomacy is not encouraging. A combination of
AND
and so increase Iran’s determination not to be swayed from its current course.

Plan solves

Pillar 13 – Dr. Paul R. Pillar, Professor and Senior Fellow at the Center for Security Studies at Georgetown University and Nonresident Senior Fellow in Foreign Policy at the Brookings Institution, Ph.D. in Politics from Princeton University, MA in Politics from Oxford University, "Threats of Force Don’t Always Help", The National Interest, 9-15, http://nationalinterest.org/blog/paul-pillar/threats-force-dont-always-help-9072

The danger of the commonly accepted conclusion comes from promoting a simple belief that "
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and understand how such threats may help to kill the prospects for one.

Not intrinsic —- do the plan and pass _.

Fiat solves the link —- it’s instant —- no political effect

Obama will horse-trade restrictions for his agenda

McGinnis 93 – John O. McGinnis, Assistant Professor at the Cardozo School of Law and Former Deputy Assistant Attorney General in the Office of Legal Counsel, Department of Justice, "Constitutional Review by the Executive in Foreign Affairs and War Powers: A Consequence of Rational Choice in the Separation of Powers", Law and Contemporary Problems, 56(4), p. 322-324

C. Bargaining in Foreign Policy Areas Where the Accommodation Reflects Congress’s Predominant Interest Shortly
AND
necessary in order to overcome the internal opposition of institutions such as OLC.

Tournament: NDT | Round: 2 | Opponent: Weber HT | Judge: Maloche, Butt, Roarke

Perm do both

Perm do the plan and all non mutually exclusive parts of the alternative

Conditionality is a voter – creates time an strategy skew, argument irresponsibility, one condo/dispo solves their offense

Role of the ballots to simulate USFG action—-key to fairness and ground, otherwise they wish away 9 minutes of offense

Judge choice—-reject bad reps and vote for the plan as a good idea—-key to logical policymaking and prevents extremism

Approaches informed by Mbembe endemically fail and re-inscribe violence through absention.

Weate ’3
Jeremy Weate is a philosopher based in Nigeria. He studied philosophy at the University of Hull, the University of Liège and the University of Warwick, graduating with a PhD in philosophy from Warwick. His PhD thesis was Phenomenology and Difference: the Body, Architecture and Race. Achille Mbembe and the Postcolony: Going beyond the Text – Research in African Literatures, Volume 34, Number 4, Winter
2003, pp. 27-41

Unfortunately, this key moment of possibility in Mbembe’s entire project gets submerged and dissipated
AND
be ambiguous, precisely because forces of resistance and domination are at work.   

No Link – the 1ac does not specifically address the muslim world – saying we aren’t bad in that context in response to their K doesn’t mean we link

) Necropolitics thesis wrong and re-trenches power.

Mitropoulos ’5
Angela Mitropoulos is a graduate of La Trobe University’s Department of Sociology and Anthropology. She currently writes on border policing. She has been published on several occasions – "Necropolitics" October 16, 2005 – http://archive.blogsome.com/2005/10/16/necropolitics-war/

Mbembe concludes the essay by arguing that the concept of biopolitics might be better replaced
AND
to objects of the war machines’ movements, but not capable of movement themselves

(  ) This only applies if the link is "death good" – which is a faulty premise:

A – our famine and disease impacts are more than death – they quality of life issues even if people physically survive.

B - Err with falsifiability. Death might be better – but, it could also be that pain endures from time of death. Also, no guarantee of transcendence.

Their Reverse-Try-or-Die Framing’s wrong – happiness only falsifiably exists in the now.

C- dangerous to be dismissive of physical life

Danaher ’11
John Danaher is a lecturer in law at Keele University with an interest in philosophy –
Harman on Benatar’s Better Never to Have Been (Part Three) – Philosophical Disquisitions – May 13, 2011 – http://philosophicaldisquisitions.blogspot.com/2011/05/harman-on-benatars-better-never-to-have_7699.html
As highlighted in part one, Benatar’s second argument rests on a key empirical claim
AND
features of life could disappear. This would make procreation permissible once more.

Aff is a contingent reform – not liberal reformism. Means we solve and win on perm.

McCormick ’99
(John P., Assistant Political Science Pf - Yale, American Political Science Review. v93, p. 413/17)

For Habermas, the de facto strategy of reducing all cases to "exceptions"
AND
, which is therefore suspendable in the name of a sovereign popular will. 

Liberalism K wrong – it’s not fixed and can change. They essentialize and our perm solves.

Phillips ’93
(not Scott Phillips, he’s not a Professor… Anne Phillips, Professor of Politics at London Guildhall University, 1993, Democracy and Difference, p.105s)
I explore here the powerful critiques that feminists have developed under the three broad headings
AND
engendering democracy without also’ worrying about whether the results are still ’liberal democracy’.

Their link ev describes the squo and indicates the plan’s restraint of intervention solves

Blue = msu
Raja 2005 ~Masood Ashraf. "Death as a Form of Becoming: the Muslim Imagery of Death and Necropolitics." Digest of Middle East Studies 14.2 (2005): 11-26 BlackMagic~

Let us recapitulate Mbmbe’s argument about the classical notion of heroism as opposed to what
AND
in this case, has the power to impact all life around it.

– Err towards life improving. Prefer Frankl’s subject position.

Coontz’1
Phyllis D. Coontz, PhD Graduate School of Public and International Affairs University of Pittsburgh, et al, JOURNAL OF COMMUNITY HEALTH NURSING, 2001, 18(4), 235-246 – J-Stor
In the 1950s, psychiatrist and theorist Viktor Frankl (1963) described an existential
AND
and fu- ture to strengthen one’s present life (Reed, 1991b).

Fourth – Life is improving and their authors have pessimism bias.

Cabrera 11 (Julio, Ph.D. Candidate in the Quantitative Methods in Education – University of Minnesota, "Quality of Human Life and Non-Existence (Some Criticisms of David Benatar’s Formal and Material Positions)", http://www.unesco.org.uy/ci/fileadmin/shs/redbioetica/revista_3/Cabrera.pdf)

4.  Benatar’s Material Argumentation: Limits of the Empiricist Approach
The formal argumentation tried to show that not being born does not harm (on
AND
merely empiricist and Utilitarian methodologies can deal successfully with this type of objection. 

Five – They lose within their suffering framework.

Nuclear War is AWFUL – melts skin, spreads disease, rips family apart. Even if some suffering is inevitable, degrees matter: angst not akin to unbearable pain.

Eagen ’4
Jennifer Eagen – "Philisophical interests" September 9 http://home.earthlink.net/~~jeagan/id3.html
Suffering is the theme of two of my published papers, which both examine the
AND
e.g., gender). I’m looking forward to exploring this further.

K’s of fear are all wrong. The better mistake’s to err with us.

Kroenig ’12
Matthew Kroenig: Assistant Professor of Government, Georgetown University and Stanton Nuclear Security Fellow, Council on Foreign Relations – "The History of Proliferation Optimism" – Nonproliferation Policy Education Center Reports – May 26, 2012 – http://www.npolicy.org/article.php?aid=118226tid=30.

Should we worry about the spread of nuclear weapons? At first glance, this
AND
the steps necessary to combat the spread of the world’s most dangerous weapons.

Their K is wrong. They have faulty data – presumption’s with us.

Kroenig ’12
Matthew Kroenig: Assistant Professor of Government, Georgetown University and Stanton Nuclear Security Fellow, Council on Foreign Relations – "The History of Proliferation Optimism" – Nonproliferation Policy Education Center Reports – May 26, 2012 – http://www.npolicy.org/article.php?aid=118226tid=30.

This chapter analyzed the past, present, and future of proliferation optimism. It
AND
weapons is bad to the position that it is either good or irrelevant. 

Legal restraints on use of force are the best check against militarism —- rejecting all intervention goes too far, won’t be accepted, and risks real security threats

Falk 1 – Richard Falk, Professor Emeritus of International Law at Princeton University, "Defining a Just War", The Nation, 10-11, http://www.thenation.com/article/defining-just-war~~23

I. ANTIWAR/PACIFIST APPROACH The pacifist position opposing even limited military action overlooks
AND
much hope of helping this new war to end in a true victory. 

Institutional checks effectively limit war, are compatible with broader critique and are a pre-requisite to the alt

Grynaviski 13 – Eric Grynaviski, Professor of Political Science at The George Washington University, "The Bloodstained Spear: Public Reason and Declarations of War", International Theory, 5(2), Cambridge Journals

Conclusion
The burden of the argument, thus far, has been to show that no
AND
are fully responsible for the harms that wars inevitably do to the innocent.
One broader implication of the argument for declarations of war is to relate institutional solutions
AND
case is probably an important condition for any of these schemes to work.
The international system likely will not include robust, impartial international institutions that can make
AND
or inflict humanitarian causalities in wars declared for humanitarian reasons (Finnemore 2009).
A broader implication relates to public reason and just war thinking. Showing that poorly
AND
to rostra (the platform in the forum where speakers could be heard).
Cicero’s distinction between force and argument is central to his thinking about the conditions under
AND

he is falling and no longer has control over his actions.22
Modern discussions of ethics in war usually discount diplomatic solutions. In doing so,
AND
diplomacy does not loom large as a central component of just war reasoning.

Tournament: Kentucky | Round: 6 | Opponent: Northwestern MP | Judge: AK

Perm do the plan and have Obama strike if he thinks he has the legal authority—if the threat’s true, the President can act extra-constitutionally —- solves the DA but maintains the norm of Congressional control —- that’s Lobel. Solves best.

Lobel 89 – Jules Lobel, Associate Professor of Law at the University of Pittsburgh School of Law, "Emergency Power and the Decline of Liberalism", Yale Law Journal, May, 98 Yale L.J. 1385, Lexis

Two mechanisms serve to demarcate true emergencies from non-emergency situations in the classical
AND
subject to review reinforced the primary assumption that emergencies were not the norm.

No net benefit

Acton, 10 (James M., Associate in the Nuclear Policy Program at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, "Managing Vulnerability", March/April, Foreign Affairs 89.2, ProQuest) 

The main problem with Lieber and Press’ argument is that no state actually has a
AND
to eliminate only silo-based weapons would add very little to deterrence.

Plan doesn’t undermine commitments to Taiwan

Farley 13 – Dr. Robert Farley, Assistant Professor at the Patterson School of Diplomacy and International Commerce at the University of Kentucky, "Does the President Have the Power to Protect US Allies?", The Diplomat, 9-5, http://thediplomat.com/flashpoints-blog/2013/09/05/does-the-president-have-the-power-to-protect-us-allies/

President Obama’s decision to seek Congressional authorization for military action against Syria has renewed discussion
AND
will likely only restrict future administrations insofar as they choose to be restricted.

China won’t use nukes

Pike, 04 (John, Global Security, China’s Options in the Taiwan Confrontation, http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/taiwan-prc.htm)

China would almost certainly not contemplate a nuclear strike against Taiwan, nor would Beijing
AND
to control escalation beyond "demonstrative" detonations would cause utterly disproportionate destruction.

Tournament: GSU | Round: 1 | Opponent: emory | Judge: 

A2: Circumvention (General) – 2AC

Obama will comply —- deep norms cause Presidents to follow restrictions, proven by history —- that’s Barron

Normal means is enforceable measures like threat of impeachment and Congressional lawsuits —- creates an impasse that ensures Court enforcement —- that’s Garcia

Increases political costs and solves signal regardless

Wilkinson 12 – Will Wilkinson, Research Fellow at the Cato Institute, M.A. in Philosophy from the Northern Illinois University, Academic Coordinator of the Social Change Project and the Global Prosperity Initiative at The Mercatus Center at George Mason University, "Rebridling the Executive", Economist, 4-17, http://www.economist.com/blogs/democracyinamerica/2012/04/democracy-and-war

I think this is good, sound sense. Fabio Rojas, a professor of
AND
. That’s how democracies restrain, isn’t it? How is that useless?

Self-interest and normative pressure

Pildes 12 – Richard H. Pildes, Sudler Family Professor of Constitutional Law at the NYU School of Law and Co-Director of the NYU Center on Law and Security, "Book Review: Law and the President", Harvard Law Review, April, 125 Harv. L. Rev. 1381, Lexis 

III. The Incomplete Consequentialist Theory for the Role of Law For these reasons,
AND
distinction that seems of limited pragmatic significance, as the next Part shows.

Tournament: GSU | Round: 1 | Opponent: emory | Judge: 

Won’t pass- momentum, conclusive, no GOP support

MSNBC, 9-13-2013 http://maddowblog.msnbc.com/_news/2013/09/13/20477384-congress-on-crazy-pills?lite

What do Boehner and GOP leaders intend to do? In a way, that’s
AND
likelihood of a shutdown at this point is about 65 and climbing.

PC low and fails for fiscal fights

Greg Sargent 9-12, September 12th, 2013, "The Morning Plum: Senate conservatives stick the knife in House GOP leaders," Washington Post, factiva

All of this underscores a basic fact about this fall’s fiscal fights: Far and
AND
. The time for injecting reality into the debate has long since passed.

Obama not pushing- won’t even picnic

ABC News, 9-15-2013 http://abcnews.go.com/blogs/politics/2013/09/obama-calls-gop-debt-ceiling-demands-an-assault-on-us-constitutional-structure/

On the eve of another fiscal showdown with congressional Republicans, President Obama is outright
AND
this month will likely not help bolster positive relations heading into the fall.

Budget, farm bill, Syria, energy and immigration thump

WP, 9-16-2013 http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/the-fix/wp/2013/09/16/the-congressional-fight-over-obamacare-part-341/

Will the House pass a short-term budget this week? Maybe. Will
AND
to gauge whether there is any hope for the issue in coming weeks.

Not intrinsic —- do the plan and pass _.

Huge bipartisan support for the plan

Gelb 5 – Leslie H. Gelb, President Emeritus of the Council on Foreign Relations and Anne-Marie Slaughter, Dean of the Woodrow Wilson School of International and Public Affairs, "Declare War", The Atlantic, 11-1, http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2005/11/declare-war/304301/?single_page=true

Passing this legislation might not be easy. But the time is right. Liberals
AND
with subsequent regrets about either the war itself or how it was fought.
But in the wake of the Iraq War such a law might also appeal to
AND
emboldened, and we begin to lose—first psychologically and then literally.

Their  first link evidence is about congressional opposition to specific military operations – none of it is about war powers authority in general – they have no evidence Obama pushes against the plan and this isn’t a losers loser link

Their second link evidence is about Obama losing the Syria vote – they’ve underlined it to make it sound like it applies but its not about war power authority either

Ideology outweighs and no spillover

Edwards 3 – George C. Edwards, Distinguished Professor of Political Science at Texas A26M University and Former Director of the Center for Presidential Studies, "Riding High in the Polls: George W. Bush and Public Opinion", www.clas.ufl.edu/users/rconley/conferencepapers/Edwards.PDF

Passing legislation was even more difficult on the divisive domestic issues that remained on Congress’s
AND
tenets of their ideology solely in deference to a widely supported chief executive.

Fiat solves the link —- it’s instant —- no political effect

Obama will horse-trade restrictions for his agenda

McGinnis 93 – John O. McGinnis, Assistant Professor at the Cardozo School of Law and Former Deputy Assistant Attorney General in the Office of Legal Counsel, Department of Justice, "Constitutional Review by the Executive in Foreign Affairs and War Powers: A Consequence of Rational Choice in the Separation of Powers", Law and Contemporary Problems, 56(4), p. 322-324

C. Bargaining in Foreign Policy Areas Where the Accommodation Reflects Congress’s Predominant Interest Shortly
AND
necessary in order to overcome the internal opposition of institutions such as OLC.

Fiscal policy cant impact markets – too many past cases

Simon 13
~Scott, NPR radio host, "How The Sequester Will (Or Won’t) Affect Wall Street," NPR, 3/2, http://www.npr.org/2013/03/02/173303512/how-the-sequester-will-or-wont-affect-wall-street~~

So while Washington, D.C. struts, frets, wrings hands and
AND
Street has been oblivious for the larger economy for quite some time now.

No chance of war from economic decline—-best and most recent data

Daniel W. Drezner 12, Professor, The Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, Tufts University, October 2012, "The Irony of Global Economic Governance: The System Worked," http://www.globaleconomicgovernance.org/wp-content/uploads/IR-Colloquium-MT12-Week-5_The-Irony-of-Global-Economic-Governance.pdf

The final outcome addresses a dog that hasn’t barked: the effect of the Great
AND
II – and not even worse – must be regarded as fortunate."42

No impact- prioritization

Romina Boccia is the Grover M. Hermann Fellow in Federal Budgetary Affairs in the Thomas A. Roe Institute for Economic Policy Studies at The Heritage Foundation., 9-18-2013 http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2013/09/debt-limit-options-and-the-way-forward

If Congress does not raise the debt limit by mid-October, the Treasury
AND
securities will continue to be honoured in full and on time.~13 ~

Global economy resilient and US isn’t key to it – rebalancing

Jean Pisani-Ferry 8/28/13 (Professor of Economics at Université Paris-Dauphine and currently serves as the Director of Economic Policy Planning for the Prime Minister of France, project syndicate, "The Post-Crisis Global Economy in Three Words" http://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/the-post-crisis-global-economy-in-three-words-by-jean-pisani-ferry)

Five years have passed since the collapse of the American investment bank Lehman Brothers triggered
AND
to rely on the same energy- and carbon-intensive spending patterns.

Tournament: Kentucky | Round: 6 | Opponent: Northwestern MP | Judge: AK

No resolve or unified signal—-Syria decked everything

Meng 9-30 – Rep. Grace Meng, D-NY, House Subcommittee on Middle East and North Africa, "Congress Must Affirm A Credible Military Threat Against Iran", The Jewish Week, 2013, http://www.thejewishweek.com/editorial-opinion/opinion/congress-must-affirm-credible-military-threat-against-iran

In the last two weeks we have witnessed potentially historic diplomacy in the Middle East
AND
the U.S., he has not matched his rhetoric with actions.

Decimated the perception of unitary use of force

Tobin 13 – Jonathan S. Tobin, Senior Executive Editor of Commentary, Former Executive Editor of The Jewish Exponent, "Obama Talks From Weakness, Not Strength", Commentary Magazine, 9-22, http://www.commentarymagazine.com/2013/09/22/obama-talks-from-weakness-not-strengthsyria-iran-rouhani/

That is a conclusion that the president’s defenders reject absolutely. They claim that whatever
AND
Kerry says, the administration has moved on and will never attack Syria.

Obama can still threaten force because Iran doesn’t know Congress won’t approve it—-that’s 100 effective

Diehl 6 – Paul F. Diehl, Henning Larson Professor of Political Science at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign and Tom Ginsburg, Professor of Law and Political Science at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, "Irrational War and Constitutional Design: A Reply to Professors Nzelibe and Yoo", Michigan Journal of International Law, Summer, 27 Mich. J. Int’l L. 1239, Lexis

The second scenario is perhaps the one that concerns the authors: executive initiative that
AND
. n46 We address the deficiencies of this argument in the next section.

Conflicting signals inevitable—-formal checks irrelevant

Waxman 13 – Matthew Waxman, Law Professor at Columbia Law School, "The Most Puzzling Line of the President’s Speech", Lawfare Blog, 9-11, http://www.lawfareblog.com/2013/09/the-most-puzzling-line-of-the-presidents-speech/

I recently posted my new paper on The Constitutional Power to Threaten War (forthcoming
AND
and allies, alike – observing and reacting to those politics, too.

No strikes

Goldberg, 12 (Jeffrey, national correspondent for The Atlantic and a recipient of the National Magazine Award for Reporting, "In Iran Standoff, Netanyahu Could Be Bluffing: Jeffrey Goldberg," http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-03-12/in-iran-standoff-netanyahu-may-be-bluffing-commentary-by-jeffrey-goldberg.html)

An Attractive Theory The theory has its attractions. For one, Israel hasn’t yet
AND
I don’t bluff." Whether Netanyahu bluffs is perhaps the more important question.

No Iran threat or prolif

Carpenter, 12 (Ted Galen – senior fellow at the Cato Institute, April 12, "The Pernicious Myth That Iran Can’t Be Deterred", CATO Institute, http://www.cato.org/publications/commentary/pernicious-myth-iran-cant-be-deterred)

Rumblings about possible war with Iran have grown louder in Washington and other Western capitals
AND
a little less overwrought than the other theories about the "Iranian threat."

Tournament: GSU | Round: 1 | Opponent: emory | Judge: 

No durable enforcement

HLR 12 – Harvard Law Review 12, "Developments in the Law: Presidential Authority," Vol. 125:2057, www.harvardlawreview.org/media/pdf/vol125_devo.pdf

Political checks thus can work to restrain the President by prompting executive self-binding
AND
practices. 147 Only time, and perhaps public opinion, will tell.

CP’s object fiat because it fiats the President —- ruins Aff ground because it devolves into "no war" and kills education because it avoids the central question of how to restrain the President

Congressional lead’s key to alliances

Moss 8 (Kenneth B., Professor and Chair of the Department of National Security Studies at the Industrial College of the Armed Forces, National Defense University, Formerly affiliated with the Siemens Corporation, the Woodrow Wilson Center, and the House Foreign Affairs Committee, Undeclared War and the Future of U.S. Foreign Policy, p. 220-221)

While the Constitution’s authors would rightly view the current U.S. situation with
AND
inattention, even disregard, of its own constitution in war and peace.

Conditionality is a voting issue —- creates time and strategy skews, argumentative irresponsibility, dispo solves their offense

Perm —- do the counterplan —- plan says USFG, CP’s an example

Doesn’t solve war-fighting —- active Congressional leadership in foreign policy is key to perception of legitimate leadership —- solves a laundry list of threats

Doesn’t solve SOP —-

Statutory check’s key to signal restraint —- states look to formal structures —- that’s Damrosch. CP fails.

Scheuerman 12 – William E. Scheuerman, Professor of Political Science and West European Studies at Indiana University, "Review Essay:  Emergencies, Executive Power, and the Uncertain Future of US Presidential Democracy", Law and Social Inquiry, Summer, 37 Law 26 Soc. Inquiry 743, Lexis

Posner and Vermeule rely on two main claims. First, even if the president
AND
seems like a pale replacement for liberal legalism and the separation of powers.

====Plan’s way more credible====
Pildes 12 – Richard H. Pildes, Sudler Family Professor of Constitutional Law at the NYU School of Law and Co-Director of the NYU Center on Law and Security, "Book Review: Law and the President", Harvard Law Review, April, 125 Harv. L. Rev. 1381, Lexis 

That Posner and Vermeule miss the role of legal compliance as a powerful signal,
AND
American political culture, is probably the President’s willingness to comply with law.

Only Congressional action stops preclusive authority that spills over to complete Executive control. Congress must be the first mover or it loses relevance —- that’s Barron and Hansen

Links to politics

Magid 13 – Aaron Magid, MA Candidate in Middle Eastern Studies at Harvard University and Staff Writer at The Jerusalem Review of Near East Affairs, "Why Obama Should Be Applauded for Consulting Congress on Syria", Daily Beast, 9-9, http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2013/09/09/obama-should-be-applauded-for-consulting-congress-on-syria.html

Critics both domestic and foreign have been quick to lambast President Barack Obama for consulting
AND
politics, some are willing to criticize Obama no matter what he does.

Obama will overrule the OLC

Goldsmith 13 – Goldsmith 13 – Jack Goldsmith, Henry L. Shattuck Professor at Harvard Law School, "Blaming (or Crediting) the Lawyers for Our Syria Policy", Lawfare Blog, 7-15, http://www.lawfareblog.com/2013/07/blaming-or-crediting-the-lawyers-for-our-syria-policy/

First, the Obama administration has continued controversial Bush-era interpretations of international law
AND
the lawyers, deserves credit, or blame, for our Syria policy.)

CP gets ignored and doesn’t bind

Posner, 12 (Eric A. – Kirkland 26 Ellis Professor at the University of Chicago Law School, Winter, "Reflections On The Law Of September 11: A Ten-Year Retrospective: Deference To The Executive In The United States After September 11: Congress, The Courts, And The Office Of Legal Counsel", Harvard Journal of Law 26 Public Policy,  35 Harv. J.L. 26 Pub. Pol’y 213, Lexis)

B. The OLC as a Constraint on the Executive A number of scholars have
AND
and other institutions with political power, then the President would ignore it.

CP keeps power with the Executive

Swanson 9 – David, Master’s Degree in Philosophy from the University of Virginia, Chair of the Accountability and Prosecution Working Group of United for Peace and Justice, "Dangerous Executive Orders", Op-ed News, 1/25, http://www.opednews.com/articles/Dangerous-Executive-Orders-by-David-Swanson-090125-670.html

The Center for Constitutional Rights has expressed concern that President Obama’s executive order banning torture
AND
the other violated laws for which no such formal orders have been given?

Tournament: GSU | Round: 1 | Opponent: emory | Judge: 

Reps first wrong and links to anti-politics

Churchill ’96
Ward Churchill, Professor of American Indian Studies at the University of Colorado, 1996 ("Semantic Masturbation on the Left: A Barrier to Unity and Action," From A Native Son: Selected Essays in Indigenism, 1985-1995, Published by South End Press, ISBN 0896085538, p. 460)
There can be little doubt that matters of linguistic appropriateness and precision are of serious
AND
nonsense, and on with the real work of effecting positive social change. 

Causes massive violence

Small ’6 
(Jonathan, former Americorps VISTA for the Human Services Coalition,  "Moving Forward," The Journal for Civic Commitment,  Spring, http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/other/engagement/Journal/Issue7/Small.jsp)
What will be the challenges of the new millennium? And how should we equip
AND
engagement consequently takes on a more specific and political meaning in this context.  

Plan solves insecurity spirals and conflict—-democratic checks restrain war-fighting and remove threat perceptions—-the alt can’t solve without including strong legislative checks on war—-visible, institutional reform’s key—-that’s Damrosch

Radical rejection fails —- the plan’s the most pragmatic check on militarism

Bacevich 13 – Andrew, Professor of History and International Relations at Boston University and Ph.D. in American Diplomatic History from Princeton University, The New American Militarism, p. 205-210

There is, wrote H. L. Mencken, "always a well-
AND
point, citizens should replace them by electing people able to do so. 

Role of the ballots to simulate USFG action—-key to fairness and ground, otherwise they wish away 9 minutes of offense

No impact to threat construction—-case turns the K

Kaufman 9 – Kaufman, Prof Poli Sci and IR – U Delaware, ’9 (Stuart J, "Narratives and Symbols in Violent Mobilization: The Palestinian-Israeli Case," Security Studies 18:3, 400 – 434) 

Even when hostile narratives, group fears, and opportunity are strongly present, war
AND
and opportunity spur hostile attitudes, chauvinist mobilization, and a security dilemma.

Judge choice—-reject bad reps and vote for the plan as a good idea—-key to logical policymaking and prevents extremism

Democratic alliances solve multiple existential threats that aren’t grounded in security logic—-environment, disease, and food—-that’s Ikenberry. Food shortages kill billions

Brown 5
(Lester, President – Earth Policy Institute, , People and the Planet, "Falling Water Tables ’Could Hit Food Supply’", 2-7, http://www.peopleandplanet.net/doc.php?id=2424)

Many Americans see terrorism as the principal threat to security, but for much of
AND
For them, it is the next meal that is the overriding concern."

Alt’s vague—-no actor or mechanism—-voting issue: jacks ground and means the alt doesn’t solve

Evaluate using particularity—-no "root cause" or sweeping takeouts to our specific claims

PRICE ’98
(RICHARD PRICE is a former prof in the Department of Anthropology at Yale University. Later, he moved to Johns Hopkins University to found the Department of Anthropology, where he served three terms as chair. A decade of freelance teaching (University of Minnesota, Stanford University, Princeton University, University of Florida, Universidade Federal da Bahia), ensued. This article is co-authored with CHRISTIAN REUS-SMIT – Monash University – European Journal of International Relations Copyright © 1998 via SAGE Publications – http://www.arts.ualberta.ca/~~courses/PoliticalScience/661B1/documents/PriceReusSmithCriticalInternatlTheoryConstructivism.pdf)

One of the central departures of critical international theory from positivism is the view that
AND
violates the interpretive ethos of critical international theory than does critical theory itself.

Alt fails —- no meaningful effect

Ling ’97 
(et al – LL.H.M. Ling is Associate Professor on the Graduate Program in International Affairs at The New School. She graduated from Wellesley College, and from Massachusetts Institute of Technology with a Ph.D.;  along with Anna M. Agathangelou and , Director of the Global Change Institute in Nicosia and Former Assistant Professor of Women’s Studies and Politics at Oberlin; Studies in Political Economy, v54, Fall, p. 7-8)

Given these concerns with political transformation, post-colonialism exposes several internal ironies in
AND
recognition that we have a moral obligation to do anything about it."49

Reps don’t shape security policy

Balzacq 5 (Thierry, Professor of Political Science and International Relations at Namur University, "The Three Faces of Securitization: Political Agency, Audience and Context" European Journal of International Relations, London: Jun 2005, Volume 11, Issue 2)

However, despite important insights, this position remains highly disputable. The reason behind
AND
departure from constructivist approaches to security, external developments are central to it.

Congressional authorization forces the public to internalize the costs of war

Zelizer 11 – Julian E. Zelizer, Professor of History and Public Affairs at Princeton University, "War Powers Belong to Congress and the President", CNN Opinion, 6-27, http://www.cnn.com/2011/OPINION/06/27/zelizer.war.powers/index.html

But the failure of Congress to fully participate in the initial decision to use military
AND
declare war forces voters to think about the decision sooner rather than later.

This provides vertical restraints necessary to stop intervention and independently triggers social change that challenges militarism

Lobel 89 – Jules Lobel, Associate Professor of Law at the University of Pittsburgh School of Law, "Emergency Power and the Decline of Liberalism", Yale Law Journal, May, 98 Yale L.J. 1385, Lexis

These changes would supplement and ultimately transform traditional separation of power restraints. The constitutional
AND
break down the fears upon which the emergency/normalcy dichotomy is premised.

Tournament: Kentucky | Round: 3 | Opponent: Wayne State BS | Judge: Andres Gannon

CP crushes SOP and doesn’t solve signal or Congressional support

Fisher 97 – Louis Fisher, Senior Specialist in Separation of Powers, Congressional Research Service, The Library of Congress, "Sidestepping Congress: Presidents Acting Under the UN and NATO", Case Western Reserve University, Summer, 47 Case W. Res. 1237, Lexis

IX. Conclusions
The scope of the President’s ….be a source of genuine alarm.

"Lesser Half" DA—-CP leaves out the House—-crushes durable Congressional support

Fisher 97 – Louis Fisher, Senior Specialist in Separation of Powers, Congressional Research Service, The Library of Congress, "Sidestepping Congress: Presidents Acting Under the UN and NATO", Case Western Reserve University, Summer, 47 Case W. Res. 1237, Lexis

The Senate Foreign Relations Committee …. passed upon by Congress." n76

Ruins solvency
Lobel 95 – Jules Lobel, Professor at University of Pittsburgh Law School, ""Little Wars" and the Constitution", University of Miami Law Review, October, 50 U. Miami L. Rev. 61, Lexis

IV. Procedural v. Substantive Reform Approaches
Professor Ely and I start …. actions is an appropriate response.

CP snowballs into complete Executive power

Fisher 97 – Louis Fisher, Senior Specialist in Separation of Powers, Congressional Research Service, The Library of Congress, "Sidestepping Congress: Presidents Acting Under the UN and NATO", Case Western Reserve University, Summer, 47 Case W. Res. 1237, Lexis

The most striking transformation of ….hazardous for constitutional government?  ~*1238~ 

Doesn’t solve miscalc—-U.S. will ram authorization through the Counsel

Stromseth 93 – Jane E. Stromseth, Associate Professor of Law at the Georgetown University Law Center, "Rethinking War Powers: Congress, the President, and the United Nations", Georgetown Law Journal, March, 81 Geo. L.J. 597, Lexis

Some of these proponents argue … for Congress to do so as well.

Tournament: Kentucky | Round: 8 | Opponent: Mo State BR | Judge: DHeidt

Plan doesn’t affect 4GW

Li, your author, 9 (Zheyao, J.D. candidate, Georgetown University Law Center, Winter, "War Powers for the Fourth Generation: Constitutional Interpretation in the Age of Asymmetric Warfare", The Georgetown Journal of Law Public Policy 7 Geo. J.L. 26 Pub. Pol’y 373, Lexis)

The question then naturally becomes, what may Congress constitutionally do in the fourth generation
AND
attacks, n152 it is unconstitutional except with respect to nation-states.
In reviewing the legislative history of the AUMF, Professors Curtis Bradley and Jack Goldsmith
AND
requirement to control the President’s actions with regard to non-state actors.

More ev

Li, your author, 9 (Zheyao, J.D. candidate, Georgetown University Law Center, Winter, "War Powers for the Fourth Generation: Constitutional Interpretation in the Age of Asymmetric Warfare", The Georgetown Journal of Law Public Policy 7 Geo. J.L. 26 Pub. Pol’y 373, Lexis)

As discussed in Part III, supra, the power of Congress to declare war
AND
has sworn to destroy the United States makes no sense at all. n148

Plan doesn’t affect 4GW and nation-state warfare not dead

Li, your author, 9 (Zheyao, J.D. candidate, Georgetown University Law Center, Winter, "War Powers for the Fourth Generation: Constitutional Interpretation in the Age of Asymmetric Warfare", The Georgetown Journal of Law Public Policy 7 Geo. J.L. 26 Pub. Pol’y 373, Lexis)

CONCLUSION
While the advent of fourth-generational warfare has dramatically altered the international order,
AND
with respect to other nation-states would be inconsistent with the Constitution.

Tournament: GSU | Round: 6 | Opponent: Minnesota ST | Judge: Adrienne Brovero

Consultation is non-binding – the executive will circumvent when congress says no – triggers bad interventions, ineffective warfighting, and reinforces presidential war powers

Posner 13(Eric, Kirkland and Ellis Professor of Law at the University of Chicago Law School. An editor of The Journal of Legal Studies, "Obama Is Only Making His War Powers Mightier," September 3, http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/view_from_chicago/2013/09/obama_going_to_congress_on_syria_he_s_actually_strengthening_the_war_powers.html)
President Obama’s surprise announcement that he will ask Congress for approval of a military attack
AND
car." This is hardball politics, not a rediscovery of legal values

Tournament: GSU | Round: 6 | Opponent: Minnesota ST | Judge: Adrienne Brovero

No cyberwar—hyped by military for funding, impossible to take down large amounts of infrastructure, no precedent, won’t kill anybody

Saunders, 13 (Doug – journalist, internally cites Thomas Rid – reader in the Department of War Studies at King’s College London and non-resident fellow at the School for Advanced International Studies at Johns Hopkins University 7/7, "Our computers are not going to kill us all: Cyber-war is military fiction", The Globe and Mail, http://www.theglobeandmail.com/commentary/cyberspace-is-not-a-combat-zone/article13035562/)

Once we started believing this, the whole world seemed to confirm it. An
AND
that’s not war, and it shouldn’t be a job for the warriors.

Cyberwar analogy counterproductive and inaccurate

Wallace, 13 (Fellow Cybersecurity at Brookings, 3-10-’13, Ian, "Why the U.S. Is not in a Cyber War" The Daily Beast, http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2013/03/10/why-the-u-s-is-not-in-a-cyber-war.html)

The idea that America is in the middle of a "cyber war" isn’t
AND
"war" too early will undermine our efforts and likelihood of success.

Tournament: GSU | Round: 6 | Opponent: Minnesota ST | Judge: Adrienne Brovero

Structural constraints cause prior planning and make flexibility effective —- unchecked power backfires

Pearlstein 9 – Deborah N. Pearlstein, Visiting Scholar and Lecturer in Public and International Affairs, Woodrow Wilson School of Public 26 International Affairs, Princeton University, "Form and Function in the National Security Constitution", Connecticut Law Review, July, 41 Conn. L. Rev. 1549, Lexis

1. Flexibility and Formality The new functionalists’ instinctive attraction to flexibility in decision-
   AND
   something more than arbitrary attention has been paid before transcendent priorities are overridden.

Tournament: GSU | Round: 6 | Opponent: Minnesota ST | Judge: Adrienne Brovero

Congress is fast —- solves almost any crisis

Drum 11 – Kevin Drum, Columnist for Mother Jones, "The (Lack of) Power of Congress", Mother Jones, 3-21, http://www.motherjones.com/kevin-drum/2011/03/lack-power-congress

Rather, there are certain specific areas where Congress has deliberately given up its authority
AND
many rules and it’s impossible in practice for Congress to consider them all.
Each of these theories has problems. With very rare exceptions, there’s enough time
AND
-down vote in the House and Senate, no amendments allowed.1

Tournament: GSU | Round: 8 | Opponent: Harvard HR | Judge: Kallmyer

Zero link uniqueness —- their author

Malka 11 – Haim Malka is deputy director and senior fellow in the Middle East Program at CSIS "Uncertain Commitment: Israeli Assessments of US Power" csis.org/files/publication/110613_malka_CapacityResolve_Web.pdf

Israelis believe the United States is projecting weakness in a region that has no mercy
AND
. The consequences could be destabilizing for both Israel and the United States.

Plan doesn’t freak out Israel

Dershowitz 13 – Alan M. Dershowitz, Professor of Law at Harvard Law School, "Obama: Get Approval From Congress on Iran Now", Haaretz, 9-5, http://www.haaretz.com/opinion/.premium-1.545430

Congressional approval for a punitive-deterrent strike against Syria’s use of chemical weapons should
AND
to a red line, which if crossed, would demand a response.

Congress would authorize force against Iran

Troyan 13 – Mary Orndorff Troyan, Reporter at Gannett Washington Bureau, "Graham: Congress Should Approve Military Strike Against Iran", WLTX, 7-18, http://www.wltx.com/news/article/242923/2/Graham-Congress-Should-Approve-Military-Strike-Against-Iran

Congress would authorize President Barack Obama to use military force to stop Iran’s nuclear weapons
AND
president doesn’t have the public support he needs to act," Cordesman said.

Iran prolif and Israeli strikes inevitable —- only Congressional authorization backs them down

Abrams 12 – Elliott Abrams, Senior Fellow for Middle Eastern Studies at the Council on Foreign Relations, "Time to Authorize Use of Force Against Iran", Weekly Standard, 8-21, http://www.cfr.org/iran/time-authorize-use-force-against-iran/p28882

How America can stop what the New York Times calls "Israel’s March to War
AND
table," the likelihood is that that is precisely where they will remain.

No strikes

Goldberg, 12 (Jeffrey, national correspondent for The Atlantic and a recipient of the National Magazine Award for Reporting, "In Iran Standoff, Netanyahu Could Be Bluffing: Jeffrey Goldberg," http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-03-12/in-iran-standoff-netanyahu-may-be-bluffing-commentary-by-jeffrey-goldberg.html)

An Attractive Theory The theory has its attractions. For one, Israel hasn’t yet
AND
I don’t bluff." Whether Netanyahu bluffs is perhaps the more important question.

Tournament: GSU | Round: 6 | Opponent: Minnesota ST | Judge: Adrienne Brovero

Alt fails – individual change can’t stop violence – broad change necessary

Gelber 95 (Dr. Kath, Professor of Social Sciences and Political Studies – University of New South Wales, "The Will to Oversimplify", Green Left Online, 8-16, http://www.greenleft.org.au/1995/198/11413)

The Will to Violence presents a powerful and one-sided critique of the forces
AND
ourselves". A worthy endeavour, but hardly sufficient to change the world. 

Congressional authorization forces the public to internalize the costs of war

Zelizer 11 – Julian E. Zelizer, Professor of History and Public Affairs at Princeton University, "War Powers Belong to Congress and the President", CNN Opinion, 6-27, http://www.cnn.com/2011/OPINION/06/27/zelizer.war.powers/index.html

But the failure of Congress to fully participate in the initial decision to use military
AND
declare war forces voters to think about the decision sooner rather than later.

This provides vertical restraints necessary to stop intervention and independently triggers social change that challenges militarism

Lobel 89 – Jules Lobel, Associate Professor of Law at the University of Pittsburgh School of Law, "Emergency Power and the Decline of Liberalism", Yale Law Journal, May, 98 Yale L.J. 1385, Lexis

These changes would supplement and ultimately transform traditional separation of power restraints. The constitutional
AND
unilateral war powers – proves the plan and alt are compatible despite their links

Tournament: GSU | Round: 6 | Opponent: Minnesota ST | Judge: Adrienne Brovero

T of the D, controversial and affects Obama

Perham Focus, 9-19-2013 http://www.perhamfocus.com/content/house-could-vote-soon-farm-bill-roadblocks-remain-expiration-date-looms

The House of Representatives appears poised to vote on a bill to cut 2440
AND
the category is more likely to include troubled and poor homeless war veterans.

Tournament: GSU | Round: 4 | Opponent: Houston LB | Judge: Delong

1AC

Contention 1 —- Intervention

Congress has abdicated war powers, leaving no check on unitary executive war-making

Pinhiero 11 – John C. Pinhiero, Associate Professor of History at Aquinas College, ""Hostilities" and War Powers: Let’s Choose the Constitution", History News Service, 6-29, http://historynewsservice.org/2011/06/hostilities-and-war-powers-lets-choose-the-constitution/

Last week Rep. Jerrold Nadler of New York warned that "if we don’t
AND
, as in the case of Rep. Nadler, it can happen.

Executive war power structurally ensures groupthink and escalatory interventions

Fleischman 10 – Matthew Fleischman, J.D. Candidate at New York University School of Law, "A Functional Distribution of War Powers", New York University Journal of Legislation and Public Policy, 13 N.Y.U. J. Legis. 26 Pub. Pol’y 137, Lexis

While Nzelibe and Yoo’s model is clearly plausible, it misses certain critical institutional constructs
AND
it is the institutional design that would better accommodate functionalists’ concerns and desires.

Those go nuclear —-

Accidents and miscalc

Adler 8 – David Gray, Professor of Political Science at Idaho State University, "The Judiciary and Presidential Power in Foreign Affairs: A Critique", 6-1, http://www.freerangethought.com/index.php?option=com_content26task=blogsection26id=626Itemid=41

~{11~} The structure of shared powers in foreign relations serves to deter abuse
AND
to an examination of the judiciary’s contribution to executive hegemony in foreign affairs.

High tempo interventions draw in outside powers

Friedman 11 – George Friedman, President of Stratfor Global Forecasting, "What Happened to the American Declaration of War?", Stratfor, 3-29, http://www.stratfor.com/weekly/20110328-what-happened-american-declaration-war

An Increasing Tempo of Operations
All of this came just before the United States emerged as the world’s single global
AND
-or-death matter, a tonic for our adolescent body politic.

Requiring prior Congressional authorization for war deters adventurism

Bacevich 13 – Andrew, Professor of History and International Relations at Boston University and Ph.D. in American Diplomatic History from Princeton University, The New American Militarism, p. 205-210

There is, wrote H. L. Mencken, "always a well-
AND
point, citizens should replace them by electing people able to do so. 

The process makes conflict less likely, regardless of Congress’ response

Grynaviski 13 – Eric Grynaviski, Professor of Political Science at The George Washington University, "The Bloodstained Spear: Public Reason and Declarations of War", International Theory, 5(2), Cambridge Journals

Conclusion The burden of the argument, thus far, has been to show that
AND
diplomacy does not loom large as a central component of just war reasoning.

Contention 2 —- Warfighting

Power projection structurally fails because operations are guided by incoherent strategies disconnected from national political will

Gallagher 11 – Lieutenant Colonel Joseph V. Gallagher III, United States Marine Corps, "Unconstitutional War: Strategic Risk in the Age of Congressional Abdication", Parameters, Summer, http://strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pubs/parameters/articles/2011summer/gallagher.pdf

Understanding the Gap
Since World War II, a wide gap has developed between Congress and the executive
AND
wage fewer of them—and be far better positioned to win them.

That crushes unit cohesion, morale, and allied support —- Congressional approval’s key

Frye 2 – Alton Frye, Presidential Senior Fellow Emeritus and Director of the Program on Congress and Foreign Policy at the Council on Foreign Relations, "Applying the War Powers Resolution to the War on Terrorism", Testimony Before the Senate Judiciary Committee, 4-17, http://www.cfr.org/terrorism/applying-war-powers-resolution-war-terrorism/p4514

4. CONSENSUS IS ESSENTIAL TO NATIONAL COHESION The case for active, continuing congressional
AND
that Congress will play its proper constitutional role in the war on terrorism.

Effective power projection stops hotspot escalation to nuclear war

Kagan 7 – Frederick Kagan, Resident Scholar at the American Enterprise Institute, and Michael O’Hanlon, Senior Fellow and Sydney Stein Jr. Chair in Foreign Policy Studies at the Brookings Institution, "The Case for Larger Ground Forces", Stanley Foundation Report, April, http://stanleyfoundation.org/publications/other/Kagan_OHanlon_07.pdf

We live at a time when wars not only rage in nearly every region but
AND
Such a measure is not only prudent, it is also badly overdue.

This is statistically proven

Drezner 5 – Daniel W. Drezner, Professor of International Politics at the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy at Tufts University, Senior Editor at the National Interest,  M.A. in Economics and Ph.D. in Political Science from Stanford University, "Gregg Easterbrook, War, and the Dangers of Extrapolation", 5-25, http://www.danieldrezner.com/archives/002087.html

Via Oxblog’s Patrick Belton, I see that Gregg Easterbrook has a cover story in
AND
, the prospect of U.S. intervention would be equally daunting.

Executive war power ruins soft power and global alliances

Schiffer 9 – Adam Schiffer, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Political Science at Texas Christian University, and Carrie Liu Currier, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Political Science at Texas Christian University, "War Powers, International Alliances, the President, and Congress", http://apcentral.collegeboard.com/apc/public/repository/US_Gov_Balance_of_Power_SF.pdf

The president’s advantages over Congress in the foreign policy realm have consequences far beyond the
AND
and how they are used to establish the legitimacy of American foreign policy.

Restraining use of force builds democratic cooperation that prevents and mitigates food shortages

Ikenberry 11 – G. John Ikenberry, Peter F. Krogh Professor of Global Justice at the School of Foreign Service at Georgetown University, "A World of Our Making", Democracy: A Journal of Ideas, Issue ~2321, Summer, http://www.democracyjournal.org/21/a-world-of-our-making-1.php?page=all

Grand Strategy as Liberal Order Building
American dominance of the global system will eventually yield to the rise of other powerful
AND
liberal order building, it can begin the process of gaining it back.

Food shortages kill billions

Brown 5
(Lester, President – Earth Policy Institute, , People and the Planet, "Falling Water Tables ’Could Hit Food Supply’", 2-7, http://www.peopleandplanet.net/doc.php?id=2424)

Many Americans see terrorism as the principal threat to security, but for much of
AND
For them, it is the next meal that is the overriding concern."

Contention 3 —- SOP

Unchecked war power sets a precedent that causes the executive to broadly ignore Congressional controls

Barron 8 – David J. Barron, Professor of Law at Harvard Law School and Martin S. Lederman, Visiting Professor of Law at the Georgetown University Law Center, "The Commander in Chief at the Lowest Ebb — A Constitutional History", Harvard Law Review, February, 121 Harv. L. Rev. 941, Lexis

Thus, as future administrations contemplate the extent of their own discretion at the "
AND
begin thinking about the Commander in Chief’s proper place in the constitutional structure.
We conclude that it would be wrong to assume, as some have suggested,
AND
a workable alternative, such forgetting will be far less likely to occur.
Part II reviews the history of the "lowest ebb" issue from 1789 through
AND
what consequences might follow from a constitutional judgment in the here and now.
Moreover, this historical account performs at least one function beyond supplying information relevant to
AND
for a change that risks such a fundamental revision of our national identity.

U.S. war powers are modeled internationally —- precedent of executive authority encourages preemptive conflict in Korea

Sloane 8 – Sloane, Associate Professor of Law, Boston University School of Law, 2008 (Robert, Boston University Law Review, April, 88 B.U.L. Rev. 341, Lexis)

There is a great deal more constitutional history that arguably bears on the scope of
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to U.S. national security in the twenty-first century.

Risk’s high —- no restraint

Blair 13 – David Blair, Chief Foreign Correspondent and Former Diplomatic Editor at The Daily Telegraph, National Post Wire Services, M.Phil in International Relations from Cambridge University, 2012 Foreign Reporter of the Year – The Press Awards, "A Small Incident Could Quickly Escalate into a Korean War That No Side Wants", National Post, 4-5, http://news.nationalpost.com/2013/04/05/a-small-incident-could-quickly-escalate-into-a-korean-war-that-no-side-wants/

Despite everything, this crisis will almost certainly not peak with North Korea deciding to
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this. We do not know whether Mr Kim’s is hot or cold.

Korea escalates —- model of preemption bypasses their defense

Pulcifer 3 – Ash Pulcifer, U.S. Based Analyst of International Conflicts and Human Rights Activist at the Information Clearing House, "The Dangers Caused By A Policy Of Preemption", 3-1, http://www.informationclearinghouse.info/article1722.htm

Furthermore, North Korea jabbed the sword even deeper into the heart of White House
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, can often lead to unexpected conflicts that quickly spiral out of control.

This is based on internal documents, not Western IR 

Woo 11
Seongji Woo is currently an Associate Professor at the College of International Studies,¶ Kyung Hee University.¶ Pacific Focus, Vol. XXVI, No. 2 (August 2011), 188–205.¶ doi: 10.1111/j.1976-5118.2011.01062.x¶ © 2011 Center for International Studies, Inha University – available via EBSCO-HOST database. 

As witnessed by two nuclear tests and intermittent missile launches, the¶ so-
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the¶ current world order and to build a new world order.25

Requiring formal declaration of war restores Congressional war powers and balances SOP by checking the Executive

Weinberger 9 – Seth Weinberger, Assistant Professor in the Department of Politics and Government at the University of Puget Sound, M.A. and Ph.D. in Political Science from Duke University, "Balancing War Powers in an Age of Terror", The Good Society, 18(2), http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/good_society/v018/18.2.weinberger.html

The key to developing a constitutionally, legally, and practically sound balanced theory of
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-so to undo that separation, even in the face of war.

Plan –

The United States Federal Government should require Congressional authorization prior to initiating offensive use of military force.

Plan’s the perfect balance that checks the Executive but preserves defensive capabilities

Lobel 8 – Jules Lobel, Professor at University of Pittsburgh Law School, "War Powers for the 21st Century: The Constitutional Perspective", Testimony Before the Subcommittee on International Organizations, Human Rights and Oversight Committee on Foreign Affairs U.S. House of Representatives, 4-10, http://democrats.foreignaffairs.house.gov/110/lob041008.htm

III Revising the War Powers Resolution I believe that it is necessary and possible to
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if you can fix any limit to his power in this respect.22

Obama will comply

Barron 8 – David J. Barron, Professor of Law at Harvard Law School and Martin S. Lederman, Visiting Professor of Law at the Georgetown University Law Center, "The Commander in Chief at the Lowest Ebb — A Constitutional History", Harvard Law Review, February, 121 Harv. L. Rev. 941, Lexis

In addition to offering important guidance concerning the congressional role, our historical review also
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the executive branch itself for most of our history of war powers development.

Plan overcomes barriers to enforcement

Lobel 9 – Jules Lobel, Professor of Law at the University of Pittsburgh. "Restore. Protect. Expand. Amend the War Powers Resolution". Center for Constitutional Rights White Paper, http://ccrjustice.org files CCR_White_WarPowers.pdf

The War Powers Resolution should explicitly prohibit executive acts of war without previous Congressional authorization
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disguised as preemptive war, has no place in constitutional or international law.
To ensure that this principle is enforced, new legislation should prohibit the use of
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a presidential violation of this principle should be explicitly made an impeachable offense.

Macro-Institutional starting points are often critiqued. But micro-starting points of SELF or societal, instead of State, transformation are less effective in this narrow context.

Stuhr ’8
(John J, Professor of Philosophy and American Studies, and Chair, Department of Philosophy at Emory University "A Terrible Love of Hope",  The Journal of Speculative Philosophy New Series, Volume 22, Number 4, Project Muse)

And then what, now what? What should a meliorist do? Terrible lovers
AND
peace must be, in the broadest sense of the term, educational. 

If we lose pre-fiat, then we do nothing. But non-concrete activism is WORSE THAN NOTHING. No Framework QUESTION can veer this round from the NEXUS QUESTION OF CONCRETE ALTS. Without those, we’re awful activists.

Bryant ’12 
(EDITED FOR GENDERED LANGUAGE – the author said "she" and it was replaced with the word "to" – Levi Bryant is currently a Professor of Philosophy at Collin College. In addition to working as a professor, Bryant has also served as a Lacanian psychoanalyst. He received his Ph.D. from Loyola University in Chicago, Illinois, where he originally studied ’disclosedness’ with the Heidegger scholar Thomas Sheehan. Bryant later changed his dissertation topic to the transcendental empiricism of Gilles Deleuze,  "Critique of the Academic Left", http://larvalsubjects.wordpress.com/2012/11/11/underpants-gnomes-a-critique-of-the-academic-left/)

I must be in a mood today– half irritated, half amused –because
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. Instead we prefer to shout and denounce. Good luck with that.

Even if "fiat’s not real", and Affs don’t control levers of power today, we advance a heuristic. Without this heuristic of fiat, we’ll re-enforce dangerous nihilism.

Hoff ’6
(et al, Dr. Dianne Hoff, professor in the College of Education and Human Development and president of Faculty Senate, University of Maine, Journal of Educational Administration, 44:3 – available via Emerald Management 120 database).

There is no question that helping educational leadership students become self-analytical and reflect
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. This is an arena from which a new social order can emerge.

Tournament: NDT | Round: 4 | Opponent: Wayne JS | Judge: J Paul, Perkins, Barouch
Contention One --- Accountability

Effective Special Forces solve multiple existential threats
Jim Thomas Vice President and Director of Studies at the Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments and Chris Dougherty Research Fellow at the Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments and former airborne infantryman with the 2nd Battalion, 75th Ranger Regiment 2013 “Beyond the Ramparts the Future of U.S. Special Operations Forces” Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments 

From the crucible of more than a decade of continuous combat operations, Special Operations
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SOF are able to meet future challenges and exploit opportunities as they arise.

A2/AD capabilities are proliferating and tube naval power---SOF solves
Thomas 13 – Jim Thomas 13, Vice President and Director of Studies at the Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments, and Chris Dougherty is a Research Fellow at the Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments, 2013, “BEYOND THE RAMPARTS THE FUTURE OF U.S. SPECIAL OPERATIONS FORCES,” http://www.csbaonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/SOF-Report-CSBA-Final.pdf

The spread of advanced military technologies, such as precision-guided munitions, is
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various challenges and opportunities, SOF are uniquely suited to address them asymmetrically.

Nuclear war
Eaglen 11 – Mackenzie Eaglen 11, research fellow for national security – Heritage, and Bryan McGrath, former naval officer and director – Delex Consulting, Studies and Analysis, “Thinking About a Day Without Sea Power: Implications for U.S. Defense Policy,” Heritage Foundation

Global Implications. Under a scenario of dramatically reduced naval power, the United States
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the international supply chain with impacts in the billions of dollars.16 

But, lack of Congressional approval undermines oversight---causes miscalc and mission failure
Benjamin H. Friedman Research Fellow in Defense and Homeland Security Studies at the Cato Institute 2/16/2012 “Wars Should Be Hard to Start” CATO Institute http://www.cato.org/publications/commentary/wars-should-be-hard-start?print

The New York Times’ report on Special Operation Command’s proposal for more authority to deploy
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prevented several military and moral disasters. Efficiency is overrated in defense policy.

Lack of oversight causes over-broad intervention with bad intel---undermines effectiveness
Kibbe 4 – Jennifer D. Kibbe Associate Professor of Government at Franklin and Marshall College “The Rise of the Shadow Warriors” March/April 2004 Foreign Affairs http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/59713/jennifer-d-kibbe/the-rise-of-the-shadow-warriors

Although both the administration and Congress have been reluctant to openly discuss this question,
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in place. The rules, therefore, should be just as strict.

Unaccountable SOF deployments are escalating---causes blowback and regional instability
Turse 14 – Turse 1/16/2014 (Nick, associate editor of TomDispatch.com and the winner of a 2009 Ridenhour Prize for Reportorial Distinction as well as a James Aronson Award for Social Justice Journalism. His work has appeared in the Los Angeles Times, the Nation, In These Times, and regularly at TomDispatch. Turse is currently a fellow at New York University's Center for the United States and the Cold War, January 16, Tomgram: Nick Turse, Secret Wars and Black Ops Blowback, http://www.dailykos.com/story/2014/01/16/1270073/-Tomgram-Nick-Turse-Secret-Wars-and-Black-Ops-Blowback)

Last year, Special Operations Command chief Admiral William McRaven explained his vision for special
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Last year, SOCOM may have done just the opposite in 134 places.

SOF miscalc triggers the Arc of Instability
Nick Turse fellow at Harvard University’s Radcliffe Institute 9/19/11 “Obama's Arc of Instability, Destabilizing the World One Region at a Time” Truthout http://truth-out.org/component/k2/item/3447-obamas-arc-of-instability-destabilizing-the-world-one-region-at-a-time

It’s a story that should take your breath away: the destabilization of what,
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to make the world more volatile and put American citizens at greater risk.

Arc of Instability escalates
Peter Finn and Walter Pincus 11/21/2008 staff writers for the Washington Post internally cites a report from the National Intelligence Council “Report Sees Nuclear Arms, Scarce Resources as Seeds of Global Instability by 2025” http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/200 8/11/21/AR2008112100091.html

The drive for dwindling resources, including energy and water, combined with the spread
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the senior analytic body within the Office of the Director of National Intelligence. 

Global nuclear war
Morgan 7 (Stephen J., Political Writer and Former Member of the British Labour Party Executive Committee, “Better another Taliban Afghanistan, than a Taliban NUCLEAR Pakistan!?”, 9-23, http://www.freearticlesarchive .com/article/_Better_another_Taliban_Afghanistanthan_a_Taliban_NUCLEAR_Pakistan_/99961/0/)

However events may prove him sorely wrong. Indeed, his policy could completely backfire
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in a new Cold War with China and Russia pitted against the US.

Contention Two --- Civilian Power

SOF deployment without Congressional approval wrecks civilian control of the military
Wilner, 5 (alex s., doctoral candidate at dalhousie university, “an evolution in military affairs: civil-military relations in an age of unconventional warfare and catastrophic terror”, academia, http://www.academia.edu/ 2350222/an_evolution_in_military_affairs_civil-military_relations_in_an_age_of_unconventional_warfare_and_catastrophic_terror)

Civilian Control over Covert Military Action Covert military action to combat terrorism will also have
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is itself strained and with it the continued stability of the democratic experiment.

Escalating SOF use risks a unique break for civilian control
Bacevich 12 – Andrew Bacevich, Professor of History and International Relations at Boston University and Ph.D. in American Diplomatic History from Princeton University, “The Golden Age of Special Operations”, Huffington Post, 5-29, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/andrew-bacevich/obama-special-operations_b_1552620.html

President Franklin Roosevelt may not have invented the airplane, but during World War II
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verifying things that remain secret. Unleashing USSOCOM is a recipe for mischief.

Restoring legislative control spills over and solves alt causes
Yingling 10 – Paul Yingling, Possible Beer Baron, Lieutenant Colonel in the United States Army, Professor of Security Studies at the George C. Marshall Center, “The Founders’ Wisdom”, Armed Forces Journal, February, http://armedforcesjournal.com/article/2010/02/4384885

The U.S. faces a number of difficult challenges in civil-military
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The solution to these challenges therefore lies in a reassertion of this authority.

Civilian control modeled globally---solves irregular war-fighting
Cronin, 8 (patrick m., director of the institute for national strategic studies at the national defense
university, september, “irregular warfare: new challenges for civil-military relations”, strategic forum 234, p. 10-11)

The realization that an irregular war is a long march creates gaps between expectation and
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and local partners is an essen-tial conversation that should be continued.

Irregular war fighting prevents WMD conflicts---they escalate
Bennett 8 – john t. bennett, senior congressional reporter for defense news, and master's candidate in global security studies at johns hopkins university, defense news, december 4, 2008, “jfcom releases study on future threats,” online: http://www.defensenews.com/story.php?i=3850158

The study predicts future U.S. forces' missions will range "from regular
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weapons and with the real possibility that a nuclear weapon might be used."

Australia models---key to military effectiveness
Colonel David Chalmers AM CSC Australian Army April 7 2003 “Heroes and Fools – Improving Australian Civil-Military Relations” USAWC Strategy Research Project p. iii-4

The Australian Defence Force (ADF) has gained a position of trust in the
AND
should the Minister intervene in the chain of command to give directions.14

Military-to-military contacts cause direct spillover from U.S. SOF policy---undermines overall Australian military culture
Brown 13 – Captain James Brown, Military Fellow at the Lowy Institute, Visiting Research Fellow at the Australian Army's Land Warfare Studies Centre, “Fifty Shades of Grey: Officer Culture in the Australian Army”, Australian Army Journal, 10(3), http://www.lowyinstitute.org/publications/fifty-shades-grey

Culture is built and reinforced by shared traditions, behaviours and practices. These can
AND
significant reinterpretation and reshaping of culture along gender and diversity lines is occurring.

Australian military effectiveness stops Antarctic conflict---risk’s high
Anthony Bergin October 2013 Deputy Director of the Australian Strategic Policy Institute “Cold calculations: Australia's Antarctic challenges” https://www.aspi.org.au/publications/strategic-insights-66-cold-calculations-australias-antarctic-challenges/SI66_Antarctic.pdf

But while other nations are ramping up their Antarctic activities, has Australia taken its
AND
consider those interests and the future of our engagement in Antarctic affairs realistically.

No defense
Craig Hooper 2/14/2014 Postdoctoral Fellow and Scientist-in-Residence at the James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies and has taught at the Monterey Institute of International Studies and the Richard and Rhoda Goldman School of Public Policy at the University of California–Berkeley and the Naval Postgraduate School and has a doctorate in Immunology and Infectious Diseases from Harvard University’s Graduate School of Arts and Sciences “If You’re Not Thinking About the Antarctic, You’re Not Thinking” Next Navy http://nextnavy.com/if-youre-not-thinking-about-the-antarctic-youre-not-thinking/

It is time to put the Antarctic back on the American radar. An open
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a modern-day Gold Rush for space, resources and national pride.

Goes nuclear
Floren 1 – J.D. University of Oregon (David W., Fall, “Antarctic Mining Regimes: An Appreciation of the Attainable,” Journal of Environmental Law and Litigation, 16(2), 467-513)

Concern for the quality of the environment provides a great reason for a mining moratorium
AND
, despite AT obligations n228 and other international accords discouraging their use. n229

Extinction
Toon 7 – Chair of the Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences at CU-Boulder, et al.
Owen B., April 19, 2007, “Atmospheric Effects and Societal Consequences of Regional Scale Nuclear Conflicts and Acts of Individual Nuclear Terrorism”, http://climate.envsci.rutgers.edu/pdf/acp-7-1973-2007.pdf

To an increasing extent, people are congregating in the world’s great urban centers,
AND
should be carried out as well for the present scenarios and physical outcomes.

Australian SOF stop Antarctic overfishing
John Shaw 9/8/2002 journalist “Australia Casts Net for Fish Poachers” The New York Times http://www.nytimes.com/2002/09/08/world/australia-casts-net-for-fish-poachers.html

Australia has begun a campaign against international pirates plundering its declining stocks of Antarctic fish
AND
operational links to Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore, Spain and Indonesia.

Extinction—Antarctic’s unique
ASOC 7 – The Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition, “Why Protect Antarctica?”, http://www.docin.com/p-91727960.html

The protection of the Antarctic continent and the great Southern Ocean surrounding it is important
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of the planet, and impacts to Antarctica's environment could have global effects.

Impact is one billion deaths
UNESCO Courier 98 (7-1, Lexis)

Some 200 million people work in fishing worldwide (industrial and self-employed combined
AND
hot climate, range from 25 to 50 of the catch.

Contention Four --- Solvency

Plan –
The United States Federal Government should require a legislative policy trial prior to introducing United States Special Operations Armed Forces into combat. 

Ex ante Congressional authorization balances SOF effectiveness and oversight and avoids leaks
Lobel, 12 (Jules, Professor of Law at the University of Pittsburgh School of Law, 2/10, “Covert War and the Constitution”, Journal of National Security Law and Policy 5.393, http://jnslp.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/Covert-War-and-the-Constitution.pdf)

The question of whether the President has the constitutional power to authorize covert paramilitary actions
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warfare against is forbidden by our Constitution and antithetical to a democratic society. 

Only formal Congressional action is solves trust and credibility necessary to solve oversight
Jennifer D. Kibbe “Conducting Shadow Wars” Associate Professor of Government at Franklin and Marshall College 2/9/12 Journal of National Security Law and Policy 5:373 http://jnslp.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/Conducting-Shadow-Wars.pdf
*Modified for ableist language 

V. RISKS … AND PENDING QUESTIONS The involvement of the United States in covert
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charge of the military operation that went in and got bin Laden.”75 

Ex ante policy trials avoid circumvention
Buchanan 8 – Bruce Buchanan, Professor of Government at the University of Texas at Austin, “Presidential Accountability for Wars of Choice”, Issues in Governance Studies, Number 22, December, http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/files/papers/2008/12/3020war20buchanan/1230_war_buchanan.pdf

Implications These cases of Korea, Vietnam and Iraq display regrettable patterns of ill-
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reduce the system-draining recriminations that followed Korea, Vietnam and Iraq.

Obama will comply
Barron 8 – David J. Barron, Professor of Law at Harvard Law School and Martin S. Lederman, Visiting Professor of Law at the Georgetown University Law Center, “The Commander in Chief at the Lowest Ebb -- A Constitutional History”, Harvard Law Review, February, 121 Harv. L. Rev. 941, Lexis

In addition to offering important guidance concerning the congressional role, our historical review also
AND
the executive branch itself for most of our history of war powers development.

Especially on Special Forces
Nathan Alexander Sales Assistant Professor of Law at George Mason University School of Law 7/3/2012 “Self-Restraint and National Security” Journal of National Security Law and Policy 6:227 http://jnslp.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/08__Sales_Master_6-28-12-NS.pdf

This article draws primarily from public choice theories of bureaucratic behavior. That is,
AND
principals’ surrogate. Instead, responsibility for achieving policymakers’ twin objectives is divided.

Tournament: NDT | Round: 4 | Opponent: Wayne JS | Judge: J Paul, Perkins, Barouch
Especially on Special Forces
Nathan Alexander Sales Assistant Professor of Law at George Mason University School of Law 7/3/2012 “Self-Restraint and National Security” Journal of National Security Law and Policy 6:227 http://jnslp.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/08__Sales_Master_6-28-12-NS.pdf

This article draws primarily from public choice theories of bureaucratic behavior. That is,
AND
principals’ surrogate. Instead, responsibility for achieving policymakers’ twin objectives is divided. 

Backlash to no oversight
Roxana Tiron 02/01/06 “reporter Pentagon's possible move to eliminate special ops oversight office could trigger Hill ire” The Hill http://thehill.com/homenews/news/10356-pentagons-possible-move-to-eliminate-special-ops-oversight-office-could-trigger-hill-ire

A Bush administration proposal to fold a civilian office tasked with oversight of the Pentagon’s
AND
to do their work and Congress will be concerned,” the official added.

Tournament: NDT | Round: 4 | Opponent: Wayne JS | Judge: J Paul, Perkins, Barouch
Legal restraints on use of force are the best check against militarism --- rejecting all intervention goes too far, won’t be accepted, and risks real security threats
Falk 1 – Richard Falk, Professor Emeritus of International Law at Princeton University, “Defining a Just War”, The Nation, 10-11, http://www.thenation.com/article/defining-just-war#

I. ANTIWAR/PACIFIST APPROACH The pacifist position opposing even limited military action overlooks
AND
much hope of helping this new war to end in a true victory.
“Peace movements” fail because the President’s insulated from pressure---legal checks key
Cole 11 – David Cole, Professor at the Georgetown University Law Center, “Where Liberty Lies: Civil Society and Individual Rights After 9/11”, The Wayne Law Review, Winter, 57 Wayne L. Rev. 1203, Lexis

In my view, Posner and Vermeule simultaneously underestimate the constraining force of law and
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society organizations, was critical to rendering effective constitutional and international legal checks.
No endless war impact
Marty 71
(William R. – Associate Professor of Political Science at Memphis State University – “Nonviolence, Violence, and Reason,” The Journal of Politics, Vol. 33, No. 1, Feb., 1971, http://www.jstor.org/stable/2128530)

The defenders of nonviolence level a second charge against ¶ violence-that violence leads
AND
as British Prime Minister Neville Cham- ¶ berlain found out after Munich.
Alt doomed to fail – militarism entrenched in the public and leaders at an unprecedentedly high level  
Bacevich 13
Andrew, professor of history and international relations (Boston University), Ph.D. in American Diplomatic History (Princeton), “The New American Militarism”, Oxford Press, Revised Edition

Today as never before in their history Americans are enthralled with military power. The
AND
, which does not serve our interests and may yet prove our undoing.

Rejecting fiat emphasizes local, immediate conditions. That locks in the worst impacts
Williamson ‘13
Thad Williamson is an assistant professor at the University of Richmond's Jepson School of Leadership Studies – “Seven Habits of Civically Engaged Human Beings” – March 15th, 2013 – Tikkun Daily – http://www.tikkun.org/tikkundaily/2013/03/15/seven-habits-of-civically-engaged-human-beings/

I want to start with a simple premise: this is a challenging time to
AND
years, and you will indeed become a more aware and informed person.

No, not ethics disad – consequences
Issac, ‘2  
(Jeffery, Professor of Political Science at Indiana University, Dissent, Vol. 49 No. 2, Spring)
Politics, in large part, involves contests over the distribution and use of power
AND
not true believers. It promotes arrogance. And it undermines political effectiveness. 

Perm solves epistemology K best – independently, rejection is epistemologically worse
Lake ‘11
(David A., Jerri-Ann and Gary E. Jacobs Professor of Social Sciences and Distinguished Professor of Political Science at the University of California – San Diego, “Why ‘‘isms’’ Are Evil: Theory, Epistemology,
and Academic Sects as Impediments to Understanding and Progress,” International Studies Quarterly (2011) 55, 465–480)

My critique of our profession is a common one, but one worth repeating.
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section below takes up epistemology and its consequences for professional practice and knowledge.

Making epistemology or methods 1st creates worse scholarship
Moravscik 10
(Andrew – Professor of Politics and International Affairs, Department of Politics, Woodrow Wilson School, Princeton University – “‘Wahn, Wahn, Uºberall Wahn’: A reply to Jahn’s critique of liberal internationalism,” International Theory (2010), 2:1, 113–139, https://www.princeton.edu/~amoravcs/library/wahn_wahn.pdf)

Conclusions: Why did we have this debate and not some other one?¶ The
AND
, the ?rst steps¶ on the road to utopia are more modest.¶
This turns the K --- more than they turn the case
Goldstein 1 – Josh Goldstein, Professor of Int'l Relations, American University, War and Gender, p. 412

First, peace activists face a dilemma in thinking about causes of war and working
AND
injustice as the main cause of war seems to be empirically inadequate.10

Tournament: NDT | Round: 4 | Opponent: Wayne JS | Judge: J Paul, Perkins, Barouch
Obama can still threaten force because Russia doesn’t know Congress won’t approve it---that’s 100 effective
Diehl 6 – Paul F. Diehl, Henning Larson Professor of Political Science at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign and Tom Ginsburg, Professor of Law and Political Science at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, “Irrational War and Constitutional Design: A Reply to Professors Nzelibe and Yoo”, Michigan Journal of International Law, Summer, 27 Mich. J. Int'l L. 1239, Lexis

The second scenario is perhaps the one that concerns the authors: executive initiative that
AND
. n46 We address the deficiencies of this argument in the next section.
Russian aggression inevitable---resolve fails
McFaul 14 – Michael McFaul, Professor of Political Science and Hoover Senior Fellow at Stanford University, “Former U.S. Ambassador to Russia: Debating Obama’s Weakness Only Makes Our Entire Country Weak”, Time, 3-19, http://time.com/30561/former-u-s-ambassador-to-russia-debating-obamas-weakness-only-makes-our-entire-country-weak/

It was not the reset or Putin’s perception of Obama’s weakness that created the permissive
AND
of our moment. Debating Obama’s weakness only makes our entire country weak.
No escalation
Clark 14 – Christopher Clark, General Editor at Urban Times, Former Deputy Editor of The Cape Town Globalist, Urban Times, 3-5, http://urbantimes.co/2014/03/5-reasons-why-the-ukrainian-crisis-is-unlikely-to-lead-to-world-war-iii/

5 Reasons Why The Ukrainian Crisis Won't Lead To World War III 1. The
AND
military nuclear capabilities, the possibility of direct military confrontation is very low.
No impact
Barnett 9 (Thomas, Senior Strategic Researcher – Naval War College, “The New Rules: Security Remains Stable Amid Financial Crisis”, Asset Protection Network, 8-25, http://www.aprodex.com/the-new-rules~-~-security-remains-stable-amid-financial-crisis-398-bl.aspx)

When the global financial crisis struck roughly a year ago, the blogosphere was ablaze
AND
fear-mongering to proceed apace. That's what the Internet is for.

No US/Russia war  answers miscalc
Ball 5 (Desmond, Professor – Strategic Defence Studies Centre at Australian National University, “The Probabilities of ‘On the Beach’ Assessing Armageddon Scenarios in the 21st Century, May, http://www.manningclark.org.au/papers/se05_ball.html)

The prospects of a nuclear war between the US and Russia must now be deemed
AND
buried targets (such as underground command and control centres and leadership bunkers).

Won’t spill into Europe
Francis 14 – David Francis, Reporter for The Fiscal Times, “How Putin Awoke NATO’s Sleeping Giant”, The Fiscal Times, 3-21, http://www.thefiscaltimes.com/Articles/2014/03/21/How-Putin-Awoke-NATO-s-Sleeping-Giant

“I don’t think there will be a military response unless Russia goes to mainland
AND
for all contingencies, and Russia just created a series of new problems.

United front is shot---their author (Harvard)
Depetris 14 – DePetris and French 3/19/14
http://nationalinterest.org/commentary/the-ugly-pointless-domestic-fight-over-ukraine-10078?page=1
Daniel R. DePetris is a senior associate editor at the Journal on Terrorism and Security Analysis. He has also written for CNN.com, Small Wars Journal and The Diplomat.

Back in Washington, there is an entirely different set of questions that are being
AND
order to ensure that an already tense situation in Ukraine doesn’t get worse.

No risk– Russia isn’t deterred now
FP 14(Foreign Policy, ARGUMENT Where's NATO's Strong Response to Russia's Invasion of Crimea? March 18, http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2014/03/18/wheres_nato_in_crimea)
Yet all that activity is just that -- activity. Missing is strategic purpose,
AND
all, the essential venue for consultation among allies under the Washington Treaty.

Tournament: NDT | Round: 4 | Opponent: Wayne JS | Judge: J Paul, Perkins, Barouch
Readiness is low now and guts effectiveness—plan solves
Rowan Scarborough 3/11/2014 former Hoover Institution Media Fellow and national security correspondent for the Washington Examiner “Obama runs special forces into the ground” The Washington Times http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2014/mar/11/special-ops-forces-wearing-thin-from-high-demand/?page=2andutm_medium=RSSandutm_reader=feedlyandutm_source=RSS_Feed

America’s in-demand global force against terrorists is showing signs of stress and appears
AND
caused the DOD to turn a blind eye on very questionable fiscal practices.”
Ad-hoc oversight now in practice but it isn’t codified—takes out the DA but not the case
Robert Chesney Charles I. Francis Professor in Law at the University of Texas School of Law “Military-Intelligence Convergence and the Law of the Title 10/Title 50 Debate” 2/9/2012 Journal of National Security Law and Policy 5:539 http://jnslp.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/Military-Intelligence-Convergence-and-the-Law-of-the-Title-10Title-50-Debate.pdf

Setting aside the WPR, one might expect the Senate and House Armed Services Committees
AND
). Whether anything can be done to rectify the situationis far from clear. 

Flexibility link’s a lie
Streichler 8 – Stuart Streichler, Adjunct Faculty at Seattle University School of Law. Ph.D. at Johns Hopkins University; J.D. at the University of Michigan Law School; B.S. at Bowling Green State University, “Mad about Yoo, or Why Worry about the Next Unconstitutional War”, The Journal of Law and Politics, Winter, 24 J. L. and Politics 93, Lexis

When Yoo discusses the need for flexibility in the process for warmaking, he creates
AND
lawmakers to engage in serious deliberations on vital questions of national security. n247

Tournament: NDT | Round: 4 | Opponent: Wayne JS | Judge: J Paul, Perkins, Barouch
“Restrict” means limit and includes conditions
CAA 8,COURT OF APPEALS OF ARIZONA, DIVISION ONE, DEPARTMENT A, STATE OF ARIZONA, Appellee, v. JEREMY RAY WAGNER, Appellant., 2008 Ariz. App. Unpub. LEXIS 613

P10 The term "restriction" is not defined by the Legislature for the purposes
AND
dictate that the term "restriction" includes the ignition interlock device limitation.
Restricting “authority” limits Presidential discretion
Lobel 8 – Jules Lobel, Professor of Law at the University of Pittsburgh  Law School, President of the Center for Constitutional Rights, represented members of Congress challenging assertions of Executive power to unilaterally initiate warfare, “Conflicts Between the Commander in Chief and Congress: Concurrent Power  over the Conduct of War,” Ohio State Law Journal, Vol 69, p 391, 2008, http://moritzlaw.osu.edu/students/groups/oslj/files/2012/04/69.3.lobel_.pdf

So too, the congressional power to declare or authorize war has been long held
AND
decisively ejected from Kuwait, a limitation recognized by President Bush himself.64

Tournament: NDT | Round: 4 | Opponent: Wayne JS | Judge: J Paul, Perkins, Barouch
Obama will spin it as a win
Daniel Klaidman 3/19/2013 national political correspondent for Newsweek and The Daily Beast “Exclusive: No More Drones for CIA” The Daily Beast http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2013/03/19/exclusive-no-more-drones-for-cia.html

It looks like the White House may now be preparing to launch a campaign to
AND
one former adviser. “He doesn’t want drones to become his Guantánamo.”
Obama will horse-trade restrictions for his agenda
McGinnis 93 – John O. McGinnis, Assistant Professor at the Cardozo School of Law and Former Deputy Assistant Attorney General in the Office of Legal Counsel, Department of Justice, “Constitutional Review by the Executive in Foreign Affairs and War Powers: A Consequence of Rational Choice in the Separation of Powers”, Law and Contemporary Problems, 56(4), p. 322-324

C. Bargaining in Foreign Policy Areas Where the Accommodation Reflects Congress's Predominant Interest Shortly
AND
necessary in order to overcome the internal opposition of institutions such as OLC.
Fights now over Congressional oversight – triggers their links and trades off with the agenda
Politco, 3-23-2014 http://www.politico.com/story/2014/03/dianne-feinstein-cia-feud-104927.html

Sen. Dianne Feinstein’s battle with the CIA has entered dangerous, uncharted territory.
AND
your time fighting each other, you’re taking your eye off the ball.”
Won’t pass and doesn’t solve – none of the competing bills actually end bulk data collection
The Guardian, 3-25-2014 http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/mar/25/house-nsa-bill-end-bulk-collection-act-reform

The White House and the House Intelligence Committee leaked dueling proposals last night that are
AND
collection at its worst, and these new reforms aren't nearly good enough.
Controversial minimum wage vote coming
CNN, 3-10-2014 http://management.fortune.cnn.com/2014/03/10/minimum-wage-increase/

The push to increase the federal minimum wage is gathering steam as the White House
AND
on the benefits of higher wages for millions of low-paid workers."

NSA program has no national security impact
Peter Bergen, New America Foundation National Security Fellow, Jan 2014, Do NSA's Bulk Surveillance Programs Stop Terrorists?, http://www.lawfareblog.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/Bergen_NAF_NSA-Surveillance_1.pdf

However, our review of the government’s claims about the role that NSA “bulk
AND
threat posed by a notional plot to bomb the New York Stock Exchange.

No terrorism impact
Chapman 12(Stephen, editorial writer for Chicago Tribune, “CHAPMAN: Nuclear terrorism unlikely,” May 22, http://www.oaoa.com/articles/chapman-87719-nuclear-terrorism.html)
A layperson may figure it’s only a matter of time before the unimaginable comes to
AND
, it appears, the worst eventuality is one that will never happen.

PC theory wrong – Obama can’t move Congress
Ryan Lizza The New Yorker's Washington correspondent 1/30/14 “Obama Breaks Up with Congress” http://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/comment/2014/01/the-state-of-the-union-or-obama-breaks-up-with-congress.html

Several generations of political leaders and journalists have been taught to believe that, in
AND
some point this year he will need to rekindle his relationship with Congress.

Tournament: NDT | Round: 4 | Opponent: Wayne JS | Judge: J Paul, Perkins, Barouch
CP fails because formal institutions are key to modeling and a reassertion of civilian control
Damon Coletta Professor of Political Science, United States Air Force Academy 2012 “Civil-Military Relations in Perspective” Ashgate p. 85-92

That said, the pendulum in the U.S. case is swinging toward
AND
promised to expand as the international threat or a national security crisis deepened.
Zero chance of follow-on AND CP links to politics
Drum 13 – Kevin Drum, Mother Jones, 4/22/13, Maureen Dowd and Presidential Leverage, www.motherjones.com/kevin-drum/2013/04/maureen-dowd-and-presidential-leverage

Finally, there's the most obvious change of all: the decision by Republicans to
AND
in to Obama. That's a kiss of death with the party's base.
CP doesn’t solve because only formal legislative action is perceived
Craig Martin Visiting Assistant Professor at the University of Baltimore School of Law Winter 2011 “Taking War Seriously: A Model for Constitutional Constraints on the Use of Force in Compliance with International Law” 76 Brooklyn L. Rev. 611 Lexis

The first element, legislative approval for the use of armed force, is obviously
AND
should be tried in the effort to reduce the prevalence of armed conflict.

Tournament: NDT | Round: 4 | Opponent: Wayne JS | Judge: J Paul, Perkins, Barouch
“Armed Forces” are major branches and Special Ops
US Code 96 (10 USCS § 111, “Title 10. Armed Forces Subtitle A. General Military Law  Part I. Organization And General Military Powers  Chapter 2. Department Of Defense”, Act Sept. 23, 1996, P.L. 104-201, Div A, Title IX, Subtitle B, §§ 921-926, 110 Stat. 2623, Sec. 921. 'Military Force Structure Review Act of 1996', Lexis)

"Sec. 926. Definitions. "In this subtitle: "(1)
AND
fleet, the heavy bomber force, and the intercontinental ballistic missile force.
We meet “TK”
Hajjar, 12 (Lisa Hajjar, PhD in Sociology from The American University and professor of sociology at the University of California – Santa Barbara, Fall, “Anatomy of the US Targeted Killing Policy”, MER 264 - Pivot, Rebalance, Retrench, Middle East Research and Information Project, http://www.merip.org/mer/mer264/anatomy-us-targeted-killing-policy)

Targeted killing has become the mainstay of US counterterrorism policy. In the Bush administration’s
AND
could also be someone putting a bullet in your head.” 6
 “In the area of” means approximately
Cambridge 14 – Cambridge Dictionaries Online, “In the Area Of”, http://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/british/in-the-area-of

in the area of Definition › approximately: The repair work will cost in the area of £200.

Tournament: NDT | Round: 5 | Opponent: Northwestern OS | Judge: 

1ac

Contention One - Oversight 

Use of private military contractors is increasing and inevitable

Dunigan 13 (Molly, Political Scientist at RAND, Christian Science Monitor, "A Lesson From Iraq war: How to Outsource War to Private Contractors," March 19, http://www.csmonitor.com/Commentary/Opinion/2013/0319/A-lesson-from-Iraq-war-How-to-outsource-war-to-private-contractors)

Ten years after it began, the Iraq war might best be remembered as America’s
AND
impact on the way the US goes to war is far from over.

Lack of accountability ruins warfighting capabilities

Schwartz 13 (Moshe, specialist in defense acquisition, Jennifer, U.S. Department of Army Fellow, "Department of Defense’s Use of Contractors to Support Military Operations: Background, Analysis, and Issues for Congress," Congressional Research Service, May 17, http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/R43074.pdf)
DOD has long relied on contractors to support overseas military operations. Post-Cold
AND
it could mitigate the risks of relying on contractors during overseas operations.13 

Unaccountable use prevents commanders from effectively managing battlefield operations and ruins flexibility

Blakely 2(Gregg, masters simon fraser university, "Marketized SOLDIERING: HOWPRIVATEMILITARY COMPANIES CHALLENGE GLOBAL GOVERNANCE, ERODE ACCOUNTABILIN AND EXACERBATE CONFLICT,")
Military commanders have often complained that contractors operate outside the regular command structure and follow
AND
flexibility of contractors and can compromise their ability to deal with the unexpected."

Accountability revives international credibility and allied support

Michaels 4(Jon D, * Law Clerk to the Honorable Guido Calabresi, U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit; Law Clerk designate, the Honorable David H. Souter, U.S. Supreme Court; J.D., Yale Law School; M.A., Oxford University; B.A., Williams CollegeBEYOND ACCOUNTABILITY: THE CONSTITUTIONAL, DEMOCRATIC, AND STRATEGIC PROBLEMS WITH PRIVATIZING WAR, http://webbox.lafayette.edu/~~alexya/courses/readings/Michaels_Beyond20Accountability.pdf)
Having canvassed the constitutional, legal, and democratic harms in Parts III and IV
AND
discussed, comparable firmness with contractors is much more difficult to achieve.404

Effective power projection stops hotspot escalation to nuclear war

O’Hanlon 7 – Frederick Kagan, Resident Scholar at the American Enterprise Institute, and Michael O’Hanlon, Senior Fellow and Sydney Stein Jr. Chair in Foreign Policy Studies at the Brookings Institution, "The Case for Larger Ground Forces", Stanley Foundation Report, April, http://stanleyfoundation.org/publications/other/Kagan_OHanlon_07.pdf

We live at a time when wars not only rage in nearly every region but
AND
position to lead the way in countering major challenges to the global order.
Let us highlight the threats and their consequences with a few concrete examples, emphasizing
AND
forces on offer, the bloodletting will probably, tragically, continue unabated.
And as bad as things are in Iraq today, they could get worse.
AND
moment, although a major Taliban offensive appears to be in the offing.
Sound US grand strategy must proceed from the recognition that, over the next few
AND
personnelintensive missions such as the ones now under way in Iraq and Afghanistan.
Let us hope there will be no such large-scale missions for a while
AND
Such a measure is not only prudent, it is also badly overdue.

Specifically PMC oversight prevents Afghanistan instability

Rubin 13(Daniel, working at Observer Research Foundation "Risk or Reward? The Impact of Private Security Contractors and Militias in Afghanistan," http://www.observerindia.com/cms/export/orfonline/modules/occasionalpaper/attachments/occasionalpaper43_1376728531824.pdf)
As the US withdrew combat forces from Iraq, PSC numbers stayed static, although
AND
Many of the negative aspects of PSC use have yet to be dealt with

Afghanistan failure ends NATOs ability to credibly deter Russia

Miller 12(Paul, served as director for Afghanistan on the National Security Council staff under Presidents Bush and Obama. He is an assistant professor of International Security Affairs at the National Defense University and director for the Afghanistan-Pakistan program at the College of International Security Affairs, World Affairs Journal, "It’s Not Just Al-Qaeda: Stability in the Most Dangerous Region," April, http://www.worldaffairsjournal.org/article/itE28099s-not-just-al-qaeda-stability-most-dangerous-region)
A US departure from Afghanistan will also continue to resonate for years to come in
AND
fighting alliance and preserves the organization as a pillar of US national security.

Causes Arctic conflict

Dowd, 11, Senior Fellow of the Fraser Institute
(The Big Chill: Energy Needs Fueling Tensions in the Arctic," https://www.fraserinstitute.org/research-news/news/display.aspx?id=2147483979)
One reason a military presence will be necessary is the possibility of accidents caused by
AND
When the message is unclear, Russia will take what it can get. 

Arctic conflict goes nuclear

Wallace 10, Professor Emeritus at the University of British Columbia
(Ridding the Arctic of Nuclear Weapons A Task Long Overdue", http://www.arcticsecurity.org/docs/arctic-nuclear-report-web.pdf)

The fact is, the Arctic is becoming a zone of increased military competition.
AND
geo-political/economic significance of the Arctic because of climate change." 

Instability kills the TAPI pipeline – causes great power war and Iranian adventurism

Starr 13(Fred, chairman of the Central Asia-Caucasus Institute at the Johns Hopkins School of Advanced International Studies, Wall Street Journal, "The Pipeline That Could Keep the Peace in Afghanistan," October 21, http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424127887324576304579072761923326266)
One of the most ambitious and frustrating geopolitical projects on the planet is now within
AND
will peace and prosperity come to a region too long embroiled in conflict.

Iranian adventurism triggers nuclear war

Ben-Meir 7(Alon, commentator for the UPI, "Ending Iranian Defiance," February 6, http://www.spacewar.com/reports/Ending_Iranian_Defiance_999.html)
That Iran stands today able to challenge or even defy the United States in every
AND
to warn Iran of the severe consequences of not halting its nuclear program. 

Ex-ante authorization solves accountability at the contracting level and spills over into formal oversight procedures

Avant and Sigelman 10(Deborah, University of California, Lee, George Washington University, Private Security and Democracy: Lessons from the US in Iraq, May 28, http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/09636412.2010.480906)
In the United States, congressional and judicial checks help make outcomes predictable and reduce
AND
Finally, Congress has little control over contracts between PMSCs and foreign governments.

Contract oversight alone solves

Richemond-Barak 10(Dr. Daphné , Lecturer, Interdisciplinary Center Herzliya (Israel).  Ph.D., Tel Aviv University, Regulating War: A Taxonomy in Global Administrative Law, www.idc.ac.il/publications/files/541.doc?)
Classified in this study as distributed domestic administration, contracts fit particularly well within the
AND
tandem with other means of regulation such as domestic legislation or international instruments.   

Only formal legislation solves congressional initiative and clarity of purpose

Michaels 4(Jon D, * Law Clerk to the Honorable Guido Calabresi, U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit; Law Clerk designate, the Honorable David H. Souter, U.S. Supreme Court; J.D., Yale Law School; M.A., Oxford University; B.A., Williams College BEYOND ACCOUNTABILITY: THE CONSTITUTIONAL, DEMOCRATIC, AND STRATEGIC PROBLEMS WITH PRIVATIZING WAR, http://webbox.lafayette.edu/~~alexya/courses/readings/Michaels_Beyond20Accountability.pdf)
For Congress to establish similar levels of control over privateers to that which it possesses
AND
to congressional insistence on its power to authorize contractor-led military engagements).

1ac State Responsibility Advantage

Absence of state responsibility for PMCs erodes the norm of state monopolization of violence fueling massive conflicts

Krahman 13(Elke, Professor of Security Studies at Brunel University, "The United States, PMSCs and the state monopoly on violence: Leading the way towards norm change," July 16, http://iissonline.net/the-united-states-pmscs-and-the-state-monopoly-on-violence-leading-the-way-towards-norm-change/)
The proliferation of private military and security companies (PMSCs) in the interventions in
AND
UN to respond more rapidly and effectively in crises’ (BBC, 2002).

This makes the overall risk of conflict higher by eroding structural checks on warmaking

Thurer and MacLaren 6(Daniel, Swiss jurist and professor emeritus of international, comparative constitutional and European law at the University of Zurich, Malcolm, Post-Doctoral Fellow with "Challenges to Democracy in the 21st Century", an interdisciplinary research program of the Swiss National Science Foundation, "Military Outsourcing as a Case Study in the Accountability and Responsibility of Power," http://www.ivr.uzh.ch/institutsmitglieder/thuerer/forschung/FSNeuholdt.pdf)
The potentially adverse effects of PMCs’ growing power on the international system, national societies
AND
protects the principles upon which the national and international legal orders are based. 

Extinction

Van Creveld 99(Martin, Professor in the Department of History at the Hebrew University, Jerusalem. His books include Supplying War(1978), Fighting Power (1982), Command in War (1985), Technology and War (1988), and The Transformation of War (1991), "The Rise and Decline of the State," Cambridge University Press, http://www.libertarianismo.org/livros/mvcradots.pdf)
As used to be the case before 1648, all these organizations will interact with
AND
, it is to be hoped, falling into greater confusion than usual.24

Only legal democratic accountability prevents the norm from eroding

Krahman 9(Elke, Professor of Security Studies at Brunel University, "Private Security Companies and the State Monopoly on Violence: A Case of Norm Change?" https://www.google.com/search?q=private+military+contractors+US+leadership+monteuz26oq=private+military+contractors+US+leadership+monteuz26aqs=chrome..69i57.10596j0j426sourceid=chrome26espv=21026es_sm=11926ie=UTF-8~~23q=private+military+contractors+US+lead+role+montreux26start=30)
The state monopoly on the legitimate use of violence rose to become a key norm
AND
into publicly and privately protected spaces, orders and citizens should be tolerated.

US policies will shape norm development

Krahman 13(Elke, Professor of Security Studies at Brunel University, "The United States, PMSCs and the state monopoly on violence: Leading the way towards norm change," July 16, http://iissonline.net/the-united-states-pmscs-and-the-state-monopoly-on-violence-leading-the-way-towards-norm-change/)
PMSCs and norm change AND of private armed forces in international affairs.

Signal of congressional buy in is key

Fontaine and Nagl 9(Richard, senior fellow at the Center for New American Security, John, President of the Center for New American Security, "Contractors in American Conflicts: Adapting to a New Reality," December, http://www.cnas.org/files/documents/publications/ContractorConflicts_FontaineNagl_Dec2009_workingpaper_1.pdf)
The precedent-setting nature of America’s current way of dealing with contractors constitutes just
AND
broader U.S. foreign policy interests – could well be profound.

Parliamentary checks counter the perception of executives abdicating responsibility

Jones 8(Oliver, professor at the University of Oxford, "Implausible Deniability: State Responsibility for the actions of Private Military Firms,")
States gain many benefits from the current unregulated environment. A central, and perhaps
AND
regulation appear aspirational, utopian and idealistic. State Responsibility provides that incentive. 

Only the clarity of legislation provides the perception of legitimacy

Bailes and Holmqvist 7(Alyson J. K. Bailes, Director of the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) Caroline Holmqvist, a doctoral student at the Department of War Studies, King’s College, London, and a previous employee at SIPRI, "The Increasing Role of Private Military and Security Companies," October, http://www.europarl.europa.eu/meetdocs/2004_2009/documents/dv/sede050508studype385521_/SEDE050508studyPE385521_en.pdf)
In a state-led system of defence and security, the correct choice and
AND
training with a military purpose’ carried out by companies registered under its jurisdiction20.

1ac Solvency

PLAN 

The United States Federal Government should require Congressional authorization through a policy trial prior to the introduction of privately contracted Armed Forces into combat.

The plan creates a web of checks that ensures executive compliance

Michaels 4(Jon D, * Law Clerk to the Honorable Guido Calabresi, U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit; Law Clerk designate, the Honorable David H. Souter, U.S. Supreme Court; J.D., Yale Law School; M.A., Oxford University; B.A., Williams College BEYOND ACCOUNTABILITY: THE CONSTITUTIONAL, DEMOCRATIC, AND STRATEGIC PROBLEMS WITH PRIVATIZING WAR, http://webbox.lafayette.edu/~~alexya/courses/readings/Michaels_Beyond20Accountability.pdf)
Regulating military personnel and patrolling funding allocations are secondary weapons in Congress’s quiver. The
AND
when antiwar sentiment and hostility toward presidential warmaking power were both exceedingly high)

Only legislation solves signal, won’t be circumvented, and avoids warfighting

LaPlaca 12(Anthony, attorney with J.D. from the George Washington University Law School, Settling the inherently governmental functions debate once and for all: the need for comprehensive legislation of private security contractors in Afghanistan, Spring, http://iissonline.net/settling-the-inherently-governmental-functions-debate-once-and-for-all-the-need-for-comprehensive-legislation-of-private-security-contractors-in-afghanistan-2/)
B. The Need for a Legislative Solution The best hope for alleviating the IGF
AND
to the U.S. Government is best for America’s international image.

Ex ante policy trials avoid circumvention

Buchanan 8 – Bruce Buchanan, Professor of Government at the University of Texas at Austin, "Presidential Accountability for Wars of Choice", Issues in Governance Studies, Number 22, December, http://www.brookings.edu/~~/media/research/files/papers/2008/12/3020war20buchanan/1230_war_buchanan.pdf

Implications
These cases of Korea, Vietnam and Iraq display regrettable patterns of ill-considered presidential decisions for optional wars that become widely perceived as unsuccessful and/or not worth their costs, and undermined popular support for the presidents involved. They also raise questions as to the wisdom of the discretionary war powers claimed by these presidents: claims not effectively challenged since the Truman precedent.
I suggest a remedy—a turn to prospective rather than standard retrospective accountability—by putting the war policy on trial before the president may initiate hostilities, rather than waiting until after the costs have incurred. When time permits, Congress should mandate a prospective review before the president is authorized to send in any troops.
Prospective review has been averted not by lack of congressional power, but by some
AND
war policy, in which they clearly have an actual role to play.
Needed, therefore, is a formal procedure featuring an authentic debate on the merits, and not merely rally events with little more than temporary emotional support for the president’s war policy. Putting a war policy on trial before it is implemented will either avoid ill-advised wars or build more durable support for wars found justifiable.
Currently, policy trials are not politically feasible. But the failure of the War Powers Resolution of 1973 and the timidity of the recently proposed War Powers Consultation Act of 200963 suggest that anything noncontroversial enough to be politically feasible will not be strong enough to work. So before addressing the feasibility issue we should first ask what could be strong enough to work without altering the Constitution. I propose a policy trial.
Conclusion: Policy Trials
The model for policy trials is the impeachment process, as described in Article 1 sections 2 and 3 of the Constitution, where the prospective war policy, and not the president, is examined. The power to establish a policy trial process is in Article 1 Section 4, which grants each House the right to determine the rules of its own proceedings.
The process, triggered by a majority vote of the House, would impose special rules of order designed to create a debate on the merits before any congressional resolution or declaration of war is possible.
Invoking the procedure implies that the president must formally defend the proposal against well-prepared opponents, with the Chief Justice presiding and the Senate empanelled as the jury. Importantly, this entails a temporary suspension of traditional deference to the president, who is now free to evade, steer or obstruct such debate at any time.
Most importantly, invoking the procedure signals the public that something rare and serious has
AND
and 1937, which kept a frustrated President Roosevelt from helping the allies.
These examples suggest that policy trials could help crystallize a public consensus, which in turn could influence and politically protect members of Congress, who typically follow the public’s lead.
A final question: are policy trials an attack on the presidency? No,
AND
reduce the system-draining recriminations that followed Korea, Vietnam and Iraq.

Closing loopholes ensures no circumvention

Underwood 12(Matthew, J.D. Candidate, Northwestern University School of Law, ""JEALOUSIES OF A STANDING ARMY": THE USE OF MERCENARIES IN THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR CONGRESS’S ROLE IN REGULATING PRIVATE MILITARY FIRMS," http://www.law.northwestern.edu/lawreview/v106/n1/317/LR106n1Underwood.pdf)
PMFs and the Separation of Powers.—The current system of military contracting poses a
AND
the Executive can avoid the requirements of these statutes by using contractors.174

Obama will comply

Barron 8 – David J. Barron, Professor of Law at Harvard Law School and Martin S. Lederman, Visiting Professor of Law at the Georgetown University Law Center, "The Commander in Chief at the Lowest Ebb — A Constitutional History", Harvard Law Review, February, 121 Harv. L. Rev. 941, Lexis

In addition to offering important guidance concerning the congressional role, our historical review also
AND
even purported to regulate troop deployments and the actions of troops already deployed.
Even since claims of preclusive power emerged in full, the practice within the executive
AND
almost no actual defiance of statutory limitations predicated on such a constitutional theory.
This repeated, though not unbroken, deferential executive branch stance is not, we
AND
, the Constitution compels the Commander in Chief to comply with legislative restrictions.
In this way, the founding legal charter itself exhorts the President to justify controversial
AND
the executive branch itself for most of our history of war powers development.

Tournament: NDT | Round: 5 | Opponent: Northwestern OS | Judge: 

Patent Reform – 2AC

Plan is a win – Obama proposed the plan

Isenberg 9(David, researcher and leader of the Norwegian Initiative on Small Arms Transfers (NISAT) at the International Peace Research Institute, Oslo (PRIO), and the author of Shadow Force: Private Security Contractors in Iraq,  CATO, "Private Military Contractors and the U.S. Grand Strategy", January, http://www.cato.org/pubs/articles/isenberg-private20military-contractors-2009.pdf-http://www.cato.org/pubs/articles/isenberg-private military-contractors-2009.pdf)
In February 2007, Senator Obama introduced the Transparency and Accountability in Military and Security
AND
functions will not be performed by the private sector for purely ideological reasons."

Link is non-unique

Dogru 10(Ali Kemal, OUTSOURCING, MANAGING, SUPERVISING, AND REGULATING PRIVATE MILITARY COMPANIES IN CONTINGENCY OPERATIONS, First Lieutenant, Turkish Army)
Normally, contractor personnel would be subject to the laws of the territorial state.
AND
war or during a national emergency declared by the President or Congress.360

Obama will horse-trade restrictions for his agenda

McGinnis 93 – John O. McGinnis, Assistant Professor at the Cardozo School of Law and Former Deputy Assistant Attorney General in the Office of Legal Counsel, Department of Justice, "Constitutional Review by the Executive in Foreign Affairs and War Powers: A Consequence of Rational Choice in the Separation of Powers", Law and Contemporary Problems, 56(4), p. 322-324

C. Bargaining in Foreign Policy Areas Where the Accommodation Reflects Congress’s Predominant Interest
Shortly after coming to office, President Bush faced congressional opposition in continuing to aid
AND
the White House defended the accord’s legality and carried out its terms.145
The incident displays the separation of powers as a system of bargains but provides a
AND
have great difficulty preventing them because the deals can be struck tacitly.149
Bush’s confrontation with Congress also reflects that interests at stake in the distribution of foreign
AND
matters of foreign aid that he enjoys in the use of military force.
Finally, this incident reveals a fundamental tension in how different agencies and departments within
AND
necessary in order to overcome the internal opposition of institutions such as OLC.

Ukraine, jobless benefits, Obamacare and budget thump

Jamie Dupree is the Radio News Director of the Washington Bureau of the Cox Media Group and writes the Washington Insider blog. 3-23-2014 http://www.wsbradio.com/weblogs/jamie-dupree/2014/mar/23/congress-back-three-week-session/-http://www.wsbradio.com/weblogs/jamie-dupree/2014/mar/23/congress-back-three-week-session/

After a week back home, the House and Senate return to legislative business on
AND
the Senate approved a rival plan from Democrats on March 23 of 2013.

No patent DA – Obama’s not pushing, won’t pass and legislation doesn’t solve trolls

Richard Lloyd, IAM Magazine, 2-27-2014 http://www.iam-magazine.com/blog/Detail.aspx?g=a3dd8510-5551-4070-9ef1-3beb0470a94a-http://www.iam-magazine.com/blog/Detail.aspx?g=a3dd8510-5551-4070-9ef1-3beb0470a94a

One week on from the White House’s announcement that it was taking a number of
AND
shifting and backing legislation that deals more succinctly with the frivolous litigation problem.

No impact – patent trolls are hype – best studies on the issue

Merritt, EE Times, 3-12-14 Rick, "Patent Data Missing in Troll Debate" http://www.eetimes.com/document.asp?doc_id=1321364and_mc=MP_IW_EDT_STUB, accessed 3-15-14

While the US Congress debates legislation aimed at addressing a troubling increase in patent infringement
AND
the litigant — rather than the type of patent — may be misplaced.

Legislation not key – Court and FTC solve

Susanne M. Hopkins is a partner in Vorys’ Cleveland and Washington, D.C., offices and a member of the firm’s technology and intellectual property group. 3-18-2014 http://www.crainscleveland.com/article/20140318/BLOGS05/140319786-http://www.crainscleveland.com/article/20140318/BLOGS05/140319786

For patent trolls, the end may be near — and good riddance. After
AND
interpreted as a signal of the court’s readiness to reset the patent rules.

Doesn’t solve innovation – the Senate bill is insufficient

Adi Kamdar at the Electronic Frontier Foundation specializing in patent, free speech, intermediary liability, and consumer privacy issues 3-20-2014 https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2014/03/thousands-speak-out-favor-strong-patent-reform-senate-https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2014/03/thousands-speak-out-favor-strong-patent-reform-senate

The Innovation Act was a great start and passed the House with overwhelming bipartisan support
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, and we hope the Senate settles on a bill we can wholeheartedly support

U.S. leadership can’t change treaty fatigue, gridlock and prioritization of competition

Robert Falkner 2012
~"The crisis of environmental multilateralism: a liberal response", Falkner is a Reader in International Relations at the London School of¶ Economics and Political Science, associate of the Grantham Research Institute on Climate¶ Change, 6/19/12, available online at https://www.google.com/search?q=importance+of+the+international+whaling+commision26rlz=1C1CHFX_enUS495US49526sugexp=chrome,mod=1926sourceid=chrome26ie=UTF8~23q=US+and+EU+and+environment+and+leadership26hl=en26tbo=126rlz=1C1CHFX_enUS495US49526tbs=qdr:y26prmd=imvns26psj=126ei=EFpKULy4F6WI2gXT4GABA26start=8026sa=N26bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.r_cp.r_qf.26fp=f8988a7f1ebacbd326biw=131226bih=839-https://www.google.com/search?q=importance+of+the+international+whaling+commision26rlz=1C1CHFX_enUS495US49526sugexp=chrome,mod=1926sourceid=chrome26ie=UTF8, accessed 9/7/12Thur~
Despite the dramatic rise of international environmental policymaking, ¶ recent developments suggest that environmental
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below the aspirations and achievements of the original Rio ’Earth Summit’ of 1992 

Squo solves – military going green it just won’t happen now or after the plan

Richard Matthews 11/15/12 (onsultant, eco-entrepreneur, green investor and author of numerous articles on sustainable positioning, eco-economics and enviro-politics. He is the owner of The Green Market Oracle, a leading sustainable business site and one of the Web’s most comprehensive resources on the business of the environment. "The US Military’s Investment in Sustainability" http://globalwarmingisreal.com/2012/11/15/the-us-militarys-investment-in-sustainability/-http://globalwarmingisreal.com/2012/11/15/the-us-militarys-investment-in-sustainability/)

In an effort to enhance American security and address climate change, the U.
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the vast scale of the military’s sustainability initiatives that make them truly significant.

No extinction—-mitigation and adaptation will solve
Mendelsohn, 9 (Robert O. Mendelsohn 9, the Edwin Weyerhaeuser Davis Professor, Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, June 2009, "Climate Change and Economic Growth," online: http://www.growthcommission.org/storage/cgdev/documents/gcwp060web.pdf-http://www.growthcommission.org/storage/cgdev/documents/gcwp060web.pdf)

These statements are largely alarmist and misleading. Although climate change is a serious problem
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range climate risks. What is needed are long?run balanced responses.

China won’t model – even if they do, can’t solve

Yvonne Chan 9 in Hong Kong, BusinessGreen, 9/17/09, China’s rapid growth imperils global climate change goal, says study, http://www.businessgreen.com/business-green/news/2249644/china-rapid-growth-imperils
China’s booming economic growth imperils a global target to limit global warming to two degrees
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10 independent institutes, including WWF and the US-based Energy Foundation.

India and developing countries won’t model – fossil fuels too cheap to give up

*No warming —- most recent evidence
Happer 3-27 (William, Brackett Professor of Physics – Princeton University, Fellow – American Physical Society, Member – National Academy of Sciences, "Global Warming Models Are Wrong Again", Wall Street Journal, 2012, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052702304636404577291352882984274.html?mod=googlenews_wsj)

What is happening to global temperatures in reality? The answer is: almost nothing for more than 10 years. Monthly values of the global temperature anomaly of the lower atmosphere, compiled at the University of Alabama from NASA satellite data, can be found at the website http://www.drroyspencer.com/latest-global-temperatures/. The latest (February 2012) monthly global temperature anomaly for the lower atmosphere was minus 0.12 degrees Celsius, slightly less than the average since the satellite record of temperatures began in 1979. The lack of any statistically significant warming for over a decade has made it more difficult for the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and its supporters to demonize the atmospheric gas CO2 which is released when fossil fuels are burned. The burning of fossil fuels has been one reason for an increase of CO2 levels in the atmosphere to around 395 ppm (or parts per million), up from preindustrial levels of about 280 ppm. CO2 is not a pollutant. Life on earth flourished for hundreds of millions of years at much higher CO2 levels than we see today. Increasing CO2 levels will be a net benefit because cultivated plants grow better and are more resistant to drought at higher CO2 levels, and because warming and other supposedly harmful effects of CO2 have been greatly exaggerated. Nations with affordable energy from fossil fuels are more prosperous and healthy than those without. The direct warming due to doubling CO2 levels in the atmosphere can be calculated to cause a warming of about one degree Celsius. The IPCC computer models predict a much larger warming, three degrees Celsius or even more, because they assume changes in water vapor or clouds that supposedly amplify the direct warming from CO2. Many lines of observational evidence suggest that this "positive feedback" also has been greatly exaggerated. There has indeed been some warming, perhaps about 0.8 degrees Celsius, since the end of the so-called Little Ice Age in the early 1800s. Some of that warming has probably come from increased amounts of CO2, but the timing of the warming—much of it before CO2 levels had increased appreciably—suggests that a substantial fraction of the warming is from natural causes that have nothing to do with ~hu~mankind. Frustrated by the lack of computer-predicted warming over the past decade, some IPCC supporters have been claiming that "extreme weather" has become more common because of more CO2. But there is no hard evidence this is true. After an unusually cold winter in 2011 (December 2010-February 2011) the winter of 2012 was unusually warm in the continental United States. But the winter of 2012 was bitter in Europe, Asia and Alaska. Weather conditions similar to 2012 occurred in the winter of 1942, when the U.S. Midwest was unusually warm, and when the Wehrmacht encountered the formidable forces of "General Frost" in a Russian winter not unlike the one Russians just had. Large fluctuations from warm to cold winters have been the rule for the U.S., as one can see from records kept by the National Ocean and Atmospheric Administration, NOAA. For example, the winters of 1932 and 1934 were as warm as or warmer than the 2011-2012 one and the winter of 1936 was much colder. Nightly television pictures of the tragic destruction from tornadoes over the past months might make one wonder if the frequency of tornadoes is increasing, perhaps due to the increasing levels of CO2 in the atmosphere. But as one can read at Andrew Revkin’s New York Times blog, dotearth, "There is no evidence of any trend in the number of potent tornadoes (category F2 and up) over the past 50 years in the United States, even as global temperatures have risen markedly." Like winter temperatures, the numbers, severity and geographical locations of tornadoes fluctuate from year-to-year in ways that are correlated with the complicated fluid flow patterns of the oceans and atmosphere, the location of the jet stream, El Niño or La Niña conditions of the tropical Pacific Oceans, etc. As long as the laws of nature exist, we will have tornadoes. But we can save many more lives by addressing the threat of tornadoes directly—for example, with improved and more widely dispersed weather radars, and with better means for warning the people of endangered areas—than by credulous support of schemes to reduce "carbon footprints," or by funding even more computer centers to predict global warming. It is easy to be confused about climate, because we are constantly being warned about the horrible things that will happen or are already happening as a result of mankind’s use of fossil fuels. But these ominous predictions are based on computer models. It is important to distinguish between what the climate is actually doing and what computer models predict. The observed response of the climate to more CO2 is not in good agreement with model predictions.

No uniqueness for their link and the plan generates bipartisan support
Meyer and Barnes 7(Josh Meyer and Julian E. Barnes, staff writers for the LA Times, "
Congress moves to rein in private contractors," Oct 4, http://articles.latimes.com/2007/oct/04/nation/na-blackwater4)
Violent acts by private security contractors in Iraq have sparked a major new confrontation between
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of the Price legislation but criticized the bill as sloppy and vaguely worded. 

Ideology outweighs and no spillover

Edwards 3 – George C. Edwards, Distinguished Professor of Political Science at Texas A26M University and Former Director of the Center for Presidential Studies, "Riding High in the Polls: George W. Bush and Public Opinion", www.clas.ufl.edu/users/rconley/conferencepapers/Edwards.PDF-http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/rconley/conferencepapers/Edwards.PDF

Passing legislation was even more difficult on the divisive domestic issues that remained on Congress’s
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tenets of their ideology solely in deference to a widely supported chief executive.

Obama PC is a myth

Jonathan Chait 12-20, New York Magazine, Barack Obama Is Not George W. Bush, http://nymag.com/daily/intelligencer/2013/12/barack-obama-is-not-george-w-bush.html-http://nymag.com/daily/intelligencer/2013/12/barack-obama-is-not-george-w-bush.html

It is certainly true that Obama’s approval ratings have fallen to Bush-2005 levels
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, forcing Republicans to actually trade policy concessions rather than demand a ransom.
The prospects for Obama’s second term remain constricted. Not many deals beckon in Congress. The Obamacare rollout was surely a political disaster, but the administration has three more years to get the law up and running. By the end of 2005, George W. Bush had seen the promise of his presidency collapse from justifiably lofty heights. At the end of 2013, Obama stands at just about the same place he began his term.

PC isn’t key and winners win

Hirsh 2-7 – Michael, Senior Editor at Newsweek Magazine and Chief Correspondent for the National Journal, "There’s No Such Thing as Political Capital", National Journal, 2013, Lexis

On Tuesday, in his State of the Union address, President Obama will do
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change positions to get on the winning side. It’s a bandwagon effect."

Tournament: texas | Round: 8 | Opponent: cal sw | Judge: reed

Aff solves North Korea

Scobell 5 (Andrew, Associate Research Professor at the Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army War College, and Adjunct Professor of Political Science at Dickinson College, "NORTH KOREA’S STRATEGIC INTENTIONS," July, http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pdffiles/pub611.pdf)

Selig Harrison: Regime Is Moderating. Selig Harrison is a long time observer and
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e., plans to invade South Korea~ in any serious way."17

U.S. relies on threats of force against North Korea—-makes prolif inevitable

Hallinan 13 (Conn, Foreign Policy In Focus columnist. Hallinan is also a columnist for the Berkeley Daily Planet, and an occasional free lance medical policy writer. He is a recipient of a Project Censored "Real News Award." He formally ran the journalism program at the University of California at Santa Cruz, where he was also a college provost, Counterpunch, "Obama’s Flawed Korea Policies," April 28, http://www.counterpunch.org/2013/04/26/obamas-flawed-korea-policies/)

Ignoring North Korea, however, did not sit well with Japan and South Korea
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and the North Koreans were essentially saying, "We told you so."

Coercive diplomacy fails with North Korea – 8 reasons

Brattström 7(Erik, Lund University, "Why the United States’ coercive diplomacy against North Korea failed," Spring, http://lup.lub.lu.se/luur/download?func=downloadFile26recordOId=132489026fileOId=1324891)
The U.S. diplomatic strategy during the period of January 2001-October
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survival whereas the U.S. concerns only originated in highly hypothetical scenarios

Threats only increase incentives to proliferate – North Korea views the bomb as its best chance at survival

Rattansi 13(Afhsin, being interview, journalist, author of "The Dream of the Decade – the London Novels" and an RT Contributor, RT, "’North Korea has good reason to be afraid of US barbarism’," April 12, http://rt.com/op-edge/north-korea-reasons-us-barbarism-725/)
With US military pressure and Libya’s fate in mind, North Korea has a good
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, and other interventions that resulted in the loss of so many lives. 

Threats only cause North Korea to cling harder to nukes

McDonough 6 (David, Consultant – International Institute for Strategic Studies, "The U.S. Nuclear Shift to the Pacific: Implications for ’Strategic Stability’", May/June, http://www.rcmi.org/archives/SITREP/06/06-320Sitrep.pdf)
The American deployment of sophisticated counter-force capabilities to the Pacific maritime environment will
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of ’crisis stability’ in a situation already fraught with instability and distrust. 

Threats of force strengthens hardliners

Harrison 2 (Selig S., Senior Scholar – Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars and Director of the Asia Program – Center for International Policy, Korean Endgame: A Strategy for Reunification and U.S. Disengagement, p. 269)
In the case of Korea, the United States has a crushing second-strike
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and reciprocity, not on a basis of special rights for a superpower."

Tournament: Kentucky | Round: 2 | Opponent: USMA BS | Judge: Nick Ryan

Role of the ballot is to simulate Congressional action —- spurs action

Fisher 5 – Louis Fisher, Senior Specialist in Separation of Powers with the Congressional Research Service, the Library of Congress, "The Law: Scholarly Support for Presidential Wars", Presidential Studies Quarterly, 35(3), September, p. 603-605

Reconsiderations Larry Berman has published a number of probing works on the miscalculations by President
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policies in the field of national security is the highest form of patriotism.

Building support causes policy change

Grynaviski 13 – Eric Grynaviski, Professor of Political Science at The George Washington University, "The Bloodstained Spear: Public Reason and Declarations of War", International Theory, 5(2), Cambridge Journals

Conclusion The burden of the argument, thus far, has been to show that
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or inflict humanitarian causalities in wars declared for humanitarian reasons (Finnemore 2009).

Tournament: texas all | Round: 9 | Opponent: all aff texas | Judge: all aff texas
Round 1: we were aff against rutgers and read the 1ac wake octos 1ac
Round 4: same as 1
Round 5: 1ac gsu round 3 with the following plan. The United States Federal Government should require a Congressional Declaration of War prior to initiating offensive use of military force.
Round 8: warfighting adv (gsu r3), sop (gsu r3), Iran prolif adv. following plan The United States Federal Government should require Congressional authorization prior to the introduction of United States Armed Forces into armed combat.
Octos: Following plan: The United States Federal Government should require a legislative policy trial prior to introducing United States Armed Forces into missions beyond self-defense, pursuant to the National Command Authority Rules of Engagement. 

The plan defines "hostilities" according to the military’s Rules of Engagement—-this operationalizes the trigger for consultation, ensuring early notification for all offensive use of force

Corn 9 – Geoffrey S. Corn, Presidential Research Professor of Law at South Texas College of Law in Houston "Triggering Congressional War Powers Notification: A Proposal to Reconcile Constitutional Practice with Operational Reality", August, http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=100226context=geoffrey_corn

Proposing an ROE Linked Notification Provision. This article is premised on the conclusion that
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those forces to initiate hostilities with any state or non-state opponent.