Tournament: App State | Round: 2 | Opponent: UCO HS | Judge: Nate Milton

Force-Feeding 1AC, Version 1

Contention 1: Torture

The United States is force feeding dozens of detainees in the status quo. This is the new face of torture. The atrocity occurs at least twice a day, and it violates medical ethics.

Lendman 13
Stephen Lendman (BA, Harvard; MBA, Wharton School, market research 2008 Project Censored winner and 2011 Mexican Journalists Club international journalism award recipient). Global Research, May 20, 2013. "Guantanamo Force-Feeding Constitutes Torture." http://www.globalresearch.ca/guantanamo-force-feeding-constitutes-torture/5335757

Around 130 of 166 Guantanamo detainees refuse food. They’re hunger striking for justice.
AND
striking patients from each other is vital to prevent them from achieving solidarity."

Torture is a systematic oppression that kills agency and value to life.

Wolfgang 99 (German Philosopher, Anthropologist- professor at Universities of Gottingen 26 Erfurt. ~Sofsky, "The endurance of impotence: The dynamics of persecutory violence," International Psychoanalysis Newsletter,)

The prisoners will be incarcerated or put into camps and, not rarely, are
AND
cosmos at the border of the social world, a universum of unparalleled destructivity

Using hypothetical risk scenarios to justify torture is the specific mechanism that causes torture to be normalized and spread like wildfire.

Hunsinger 8 ~George Hunsinger is the Hazel Thompson McCord Professor of Systematic Theology at Princeton Theological Seminary. Torture is the ticking time bomb. Dialog, vol. 47(3), Fall~
The so-called ’ticking time-bomb scenario’ is analogous to the just
AND
crisis, in a downward spiral of fear and self-empowerment."15

Recent court rulings on force-feeding create a legal aporia at GTMO, laying the groundwork for institutionally legitimized torture.

Wakeman 13
Raffaela Wakeman (Raffaela Wakeman is a law student at Georgetown University Law Center and a project manager at the Brookings Institution, where she researches law, American politics, and governance issues. She graduated with a B.S. and M.S. in political science from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 2009, and wrote her Master’s thesis on electoral design in the Middle East). "GTMO Detainee To District Court: You Do Have Jurisdiction Over Forced Feeding."Friday, July 12, 2013 at 2:38 PM. http://www.lawfareblog.com/2013/07/gtmo-detainee-to-district-court-you-do-have-jurisdiction-over-forced-feeding/

Readers will recall Monday’s order by District Court Judge Gladys Kessler dismissing, on jurisdictional
AND
the level of custody", and thus habeas corpus provides the proper remedy. 

American torture at Guantanamo Bay has become a global model for a oppression and governmental abuse.

Foot 6
Rosemary Foot, St Antony’s College, Oxford. Torture: The Struggle over a Peremptory Norm in a Counter-Terrorist Era. International Relations 2006 SAGE Publications (London, Thousand Oaks, CA and New Delhi), Vol 20(2): 131–151. http://www.arts.yorku.ca/politics/ncanefe/courses/pols4255/pdf/Week20620Foot.pdf

This ’torture culture’ (Luban’s phrase) had earlier been given licence by the
AND
and other official personnel, but apparently elsewhere in the world as well. 

The prohibition on torture is the archetype of rule of law. Failure to meaningfully restrict torture causes the whole system to unravel.

Waldron 5 ~Jeremy Waldron, University Professor, Columbia Law School. TORTURE AND POSITIVE LAW: JURISPRUDENCE FOR THE WHITE HOUSE. 105 Colum. L. Rev. 1681~
One point is that "engines of state" and "engines of law"
AND
wholly under its power with methods of brutality from which law itself recoils.

Rule of law is our best longterm hope of solving extinction.

Rhyne 58
Charles S. Rhyne, Washington lawyer, Law Day Speech for Voice of America delivered on the first Law Day, 1958

Law and courts exist to protect every citizen of the United States in his person
AND
to replace weapons before the dreadful holocaust of nuclear war overtake our people.

No Risk Of Kritikal Offense; Rule Of Law Constrains State Power And Is An Essential Part Of Any Society

Jonathan Rose ’4 (Arizona State University College of Law). "The Rule of Law in the Western World: An Overview." Journal of Social Philosophy, Vol. 35, 2004. http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1426343

Perhaps. Thus, as many of the commentators suggest, adherence to the Rule
AND
mechanism for equitable dispute resolution is a laudable objective and no small accomplishment.
IV. Further Issues
Although the focus of the paper has been to explore the meaning of the Rule of Law and the differences between the two primary approaches, some further issues deserve mention. Apart from their inherent interest, some of these other issues have particular contemporary relevance.
A. Beyond Liberalism
This description and evaluation of the Rule of Law has been within the tradition of
AND
an ideological cloak," an instrument to conceal hierarchies and implement exploitation.43
Interestingly some on the left, including Marxists, have taken a much more benign
AND
was more explicit and enthusiastic in his acceptance of the Rule of Law.
Although he said that law was "clearly an instrument of the de facto ruling
AND
~ an adversarial, competitive, and atomistic conception of human relations."47

Contention 2: Medical Ethics

Force-feeding is indicative of the same ethical move as Nazi doctors designating populations for the gas chambers. We must address the legal environment surrounding indefinite detainees in order to revitalize medical ethics

Wilks 6 ~Michael Wilks, chairman, Medical Ethics Committee, British Medical Journal. Guantanamo: a call to action. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1397736/~~
According to the British prime minister, Tony Blair, the detention facility at Guantanamo
AND
, primarily because of the legal vacuum in which detainees are held there.

Nazi doctors provide an important historical lesson. Absent strong institutional norms for medical ethics, average people can commit horrific atrocities including genocide.

Lifton 86 (Robert Lifton, professor of psychiatry @ Harvard. The Nazi Doctors, http://www.holocaust-history .org/lifton/LiftonT503.shtml p503)
But my witness does not end with the Nazis. I want to extract from
AND
of danger that must be heard before it becomes a hopeless genocidal scream.

The plan revitalizes the soft power of the U.S. medical community to resist torture in other countries. Only the plan can create a renewed medical and military ethic.

Miles 13 ~Steven H. Miles is professor of medicine and bioethics at the University of Minnesota, Center for Bioethics. "The New Military Medical Ethics," bioethics, vol 27(3)~
The ineffective engagement of United States’ medical societies and medical ethicists with evolving moral issues
AND
military policies may result in healthcare professionals simply being excluded from military operations.

Military medical ethics are key to inject moral norms into military decisions. That checks militarism and use of WMD.

Levy and Sidel 4
VICTOR W. SIDEL, MD (Distinguished Professor of Social Medicine at Albert Einstein College of Medicine; Adjunct Professor of Public Health at Cornell; former President of the American Public Health Association; President of Physicians for Social Responsibility; and President of International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War) AND BARRY S. LEVY, MD, MPH (Adjunct Professor of Community Health at Tufts School of Medicine; former President of the American Public Health Association; and Executive Director of International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War)., “Physician-Soldier: A Moral Dilemma?,” in Military Medical Ethics, ed. Thomas E. Beam, Linette R. Sparacino, Edmund D. Pellegrino, Anthony E. Hartle, and, and Edmund G. Howe: TMM Publications, Borden Institute, Walter Reed Army Medical Center, 2004. (Washington, DC: TMM Publications, Borden Institute, Walter Reed Army Medical Center, 9 July 2004).

Participating in, or Failing to Report, Torture In the section on research and
AND
, and more generally illustrate the role physicians may play in effecting change. 

Thus, the Plan

The United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia circuit should overturn the decision in Aamer v. Obama on the grounds that force feeding is unconstitutional.

Contention 3: Solvency

SCOTUS has ruled that every aspect of indefinite detention flows from the president’s war power’s authority, and that this gives federal district courts the power to check that authority through habeas corpus challenges.

Horowitz 13 ~Creating A More Meaningful Detention Statute: Lessons Learned From Hedges v. Obama. Colby P. Horowitz, J.D. Candidate, 2014, Fordham University School of Law. Captain, U.S. Army. 2013. Fordham Law Review, Vol. 81, http://fordhamlawreview.org/assets/pdfs/Vol_81/Horowitz_April.pdf~~
Given the broad and vague language of the AUMF, it was initially unclear whether
AND
of habeas corpus), regardless of their citizenship status or national origin. n61
C. Congress and the Supreme Court Battle over Procedural Rights In response to the
AND
present numerous constitutional questions that the courts will inevitably have to resolve." n109

DC court decisions are incorrect and have led to judicial inconsistency on force feeding. The court does have jurisdiction; 3 reasons.

Chong 8-6
Jane Chong (Jane Chong is a third-year student at Yale Law School, where she is an editor of the Yale Law Journal. She researches national security issues at Brookings as a Ford Foundation Law School Fellow and has previously interned in the narcotics and terrorism units at the U.S. Attorney’s Office for the Southern District of New York. She graduated from Duke University in 2009). "Appellant Brief Filed in Aamer v. Obama" Tuesday, August 6, 2013 at 11:00 AM. http://www.lawfareblog.com/2013/08/appellant-brief-filed-in-aamer-v-obama/
Three Guantanamo detainees filed their opening brief yesterday in Aamer v. Obama. Shaker
AND
18, before Circuit Judges Tatel and Griffith and Senior Circuit Judge Williams. 

The DC court solves so hard, Obama won’t know what hit him.

Goad and Hattem 13
Julian Hattem graduated from the University of Chicago with honors with a B.A. in Anthropology. Ben Goad graduated from Harper Adams College. "REGULATION NATION: Courts emerge as hurdle to Obama regs." 29 August 2013. The Hill. http://thehill.com/blogs/regwatch/court-battles/319287-regulation-nation-courts-emerge-as-obstacle-for-obama-regs 

Three of its 11 seats are vacant — one since 2005. Obama has nominated
AND
coming years," said Philip Wallach, a fellow at the Brookings Institution.

The plan solves without overlimiting executive flexibility. It creates a standard of protection from substantial abuse.

Aamer Petitioners 13
AHMED BELBACHA, NABIL HADJARAB, ABU WA’EL (JIHAD) DHIAB, SHAKER AAMER, Petitioners, v. BARACK H. OBAMA, et al., Respondents. "PETITIONERS’ MOTION FOR RECONSIDERATION OF JUDGE KESSLER’S MEMORANDUM ORDER OF JULY 8, 2013" Case 1:04-cv-02215-RMC Document 221 Filed 07/11/13 http://www.lawfareblog.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/ISN-238-239-290-722-Motion-For-Reconsideration-re-Enteral-Feeding-....pdf 

In Willis, a federal prisoner challenged the conditions of his confinement (his placement
AND
is within the scope of habeas jurisdiction as their only recourse to justice.

People have a cognitive bias towards specific link chains. You should evaluate specific disads as innately less probable than broad, nonlinear scenarios.

Yudkowsky 6 ~Eliezer, 8/31/2006. Singularity Institute for Artificial Intelligence Palo Alto, CA. "Cognitive biases potentially affecting judgment of global risks, Forthcoming in Global Catastrophic Risks, eds. Nick Bostrom and Milan Cirkovic,singinst.org/upload/cognitive-biases.pdf.
4. The Conjunction Fallacy Linda is 31 years old, single, outspoken,
AND
a futurist, disjunctions make for an awkward and unpoetic-sounding prophecy.

Only the formal court system can check Executive war powers in the case of torture. Allowing the executive to exercise discretion leads to informal checks that always get bypassed.

Lightcap 11 (Tracy Lightcap is a professor of Political Science and chair of the Department of Political Science at LaGrange College. The Politics of Torture. P. 152-155)
In the United States the informal institutionalization of torture has had a different course but
AND
as firmly in our institutional practices as it did in the Soviet Union. 

The court is effective at foreign policy.

Knowles 9 ~Spring, 2009, Robert Knowles is a Acting Assistant Professor, New York University School of Law, "American Hegemony and the Foreign Affairs Constitution", ARIZONA STATE LAW JOURNAL, 41 Ariz. St. L.J. 87~

A common justification for deference is that the President possesses superior competence due to expertise
AND
correct balance to strike between competing functional goals of the separation of powers?

District court action is key to check overreach of executive power.

Tomkiel 6
Tomkiel, Melissa M. (2006) "Enemy Combatants and Due Process: The Judiciary’s Role in Curbing Executive Power," Journal of Civil Rights and Economic Development Vol. 21.1, 443-445

Much concern has been expressed regarding the current Executive branch and recent attempts to increase
AND
Constitution when seeking to protect those liberties the Constitution was designed to secure.

Tournament: UTD | Round: 1 | Opponent: UTSA CR | Judge: John Cook

Force-Feeding 1AC, Version 1

Contention 1: Torture

The United States is force feeding dozens of detainees in the status quo. This is the new face of torture. The atrocity occurs at least twice a day, and it violates medical ethics.

Lendman 13
Stephen Lendman (BA, Harvard; MBA, Wharton School, market research 2008 Project Censored winner and 2011 Mexican Journalists Club international journalism award recipient). Global Research, May 20, 2013. "Guantanamo Force-Feeding Constitutes Torture." http://www.globalresearch.ca/guantanamo-force-feeding-constitutes-torture/5335757

Around 130 of 166 Guantanamo detainees refuse food. They’re hunger striking for justice.
AND
striking patients from each other is vital to prevent them from achieving solidarity."

Torture is a systematic oppression that kills agency and value to life.

Wolfgang 99 (German Philosopher, Anthropologist- professor at Universities of Gottingen 26 Erfurt. ~Sofsky, "The endurance of impotence: The dynamics of persecutory violence," International Psychoanalysis Newsletter,)

The prisoners will be incarcerated or put into camps and, not rarely, are
AND
cosmos at the border of the social world, a universum of unparalleled destructivity

Abuse at Gitmo is lockstep with a pattern of US militarism that legitimizes a police state domestically.

Whitehead 12
John W. Whitehead (attourney, president of The Rutherford Institute, a nonprofit civil liberties and human rights organization). "Guantanamo Bay: The Model for an American Police State?" The Rutherford Institute. September 24, 2012 https://www.rutherford.org/publications_resources/john_whiteheads_commentary/guantanamo_bay_the_model_for_an_american_police_state 

 "The means of defense against foreign danger historically have become the instruments of
AND
into a police state without the populace cluing in until it’s too late. 

Using hypothetical risk scenarios to justify torture is the specific mechanism that causes torture to be normalized and spread like wildfire.

Hunsinger 8 ~George Hunsinger is the Hazel Thompson McCord Professor of Systematic Theology at Princeton Theological Seminary. Torture is the ticking time bomb. Dialog, vol. 47(3), Fall~
The so-called ’ticking time-bomb scenario’ is analogous to the just
AND
crisis, in a downward spiral of fear and self-empowerment."15

Recent court rulings on force-feeding create a legal aporia at GTMO, laying the groundwork for institutionally legitimized torture.

Wakeman 13
Raffaela Wakeman (Raffaela Wakeman is a law student at Georgetown University Law Center and a project manager at the Brookings Institution, where she researches law, American politics, and governance issues. She graduated with a B.S. and M.S. in political science from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 2009, and wrote her Master’s thesis on electoral design in the Middle East). "GTMO Detainee To District Court: You Do Have Jurisdiction Over Forced Feeding."Friday, July 12, 2013 at 2:38 PM. http://www.lawfareblog.com/2013/07/gtmo-detainee-to-district-court-you-do-have-jurisdiction-over-forced-feeding/

Readers will recall Monday’s order by District Court Judge Gladys Kessler dismissing, on jurisdictional
AND
the level of custody", and thus habeas corpus provides the proper remedy. 

American torture at Guantanamo Bay has become a global model for a oppression and governmental abuse.

Foot 6
Rosemary Foot, St Antony’s College, Oxford. Torture: The Struggle over a Peremptory Norm in a Counter-Terrorist Era. International Relations 2006 SAGE Publications (London, Thousand Oaks, CA and New Delhi), Vol 20(2): 131–151. http://www.arts.yorku.ca/politics/ncanefe/courses/pols4255/pdf/Week20620Foot.pdf

This ’torture culture’ (Luban’s phrase) had earlier been given licence by the
AND
and other official personnel, but apparently elsewhere in the world as well. 

The prohibition on torture is the archetype of rule of law. Failure to meaningfully restrict torture causes the whole system to unravel.

Waldron 5 ~Jeremy Waldron, University Professor, Columbia Law School. TORTURE AND POSITIVE LAW: JURISPRUDENCE FOR THE WHITE HOUSE. 105 Colum. L. Rev. 1681~
One point is that "engines of state" and "engines of law"
AND
wholly under its power with methods of brutality from which law itself recoils.

Adherence to rule of law does mean deference to current legal norms but to the principle of a limited government, which is a prerequisite to any social movement.

Jonathan Rose ’4 (Arizona State University College of Law). "The Rule of Law in the Western World: An Overview." Journal of Social Philosophy, Vol. 35, 2004. http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1426343

Perhaps. Thus, as many of the commentators suggest, adherence to the Rule  
AND
rule of law "has been under mounting pressure in modern society."70

Even after GTMO closes, the court precedent about detentions that happened there will determine the future of foreign policy.

Hernandez-Lopez, 2010:
(Guantanamo As A "Legal Black Hole": A Base For Expanding Space, Markets, and Culture. January 2010. Ernesto A. Hernandez-Lopez, Associate Professor of Law At Chapman University School of Law.)

This Article has offered preliminary suggestions as to why Empire purposefully creates Guantanamo’s jurisdictional anomalies
AND
, and policymakers should explore the motivations and effects of these legal instruments.

Contention 2: Medical Ethics

Force-feeding is indicative of the same ethical move as Nazi doctors designating populations for the gas chambers. We must address the legal environment surrounding indefinite detainees in order to revitalize medical ethics

Wilks 6 ~Michael Wilks, chairman, Medical Ethics Committee, British Medical Journal. Guantanamo: a call to action. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1397736/~~
According to the British prime minister, Tony Blair, the detention facility at Guantanamo
AND
, primarily because of the legal vacuum in which detainees are held there.

Nazi doctors provide an important historical lesson. Absent strong institutional norms for medical ethics, average people can commit horrific atrocities including genocide.

Lifton 86 (Robert Lifton, professor of psychiatry @ Harvard. The Nazi Doctors, http://www.holocaust-history .org/lifton/LiftonT503.shtml p503)
But my witness does not end with the Nazis. I want to extract from
AND
of danger that must be heard before it becomes a hopeless genocidal scream.

The plan revitalizes the soft power of the U.S. medical community to resist torture in other countries. Only the plan can create a renewed medical and military ethic.

Miles 13 ~Steven H. Miles is professor of medicine and bioethics at the University of Minnesota, Center for Bioethics. "The New Military Medical Ethics," bioethics, vol 27(3)~
The ineffective engagement of United States’ medical societies and medical ethicists with evolving moral issues
AND
military policies may result in healthcare professionals simply being excluded from military operations.

Military medical ethics are key to inject moral norms into military decisions. That checks militarism and use of WMD.

Levy and Sidel 4
VICTOR W. SIDEL, MD (Distinguished Professor of Social Medicine at Albert Einstein College of Medicine; Adjunct Professor of Public Health at Cornell; former President of the American Public Health Association; President of Physicians for Social Responsibility; and President of International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War) AND BARRY S. LEVY, MD, MPH (Adjunct Professor of Community Health at Tufts School of Medicine; former President of the American Public Health Association; and Executive Director of International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War)., “Physician-Soldier: A Moral Dilemma?,” in Military Medical Ethics, ed. Thomas E. Beam, Linette R. Sparacino, Edmund D. Pellegrino, Anthony E. Hartle, and, and Edmund G. Howe: TMM Publications, Borden Institute, Walter Reed Army Medical Center, 2004. (Washington, DC: TMM Publications, Borden Institute, Walter Reed Army Medical Center, 9 July 2004).

Participating in, or Failing to Report, Torture In the section on research and
AND
, and more generally illustrate the role physicians may play in effecting change. 

Thus, the Plan

The United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia circuit should overturn the decision in Aamer v. Obama on the grounds that force feeding is an unconstitutional violation of the writ of habeas corpus.

Contention 3: Solvency

SCOTUS has ruled that every aspect of indefinite detention flows from the president’s war power’s authority, and that this gives federal district courts the power to check that authority through habeas corpus challenges.

Horowitz 13 ~Creating A More Meaningful Detention Statute: Lessons Learned From Hedges v. Obama. Colby P. Horowitz, J.D. Candidate, 2014, Fordham University School of Law. Captain, U.S. Army. 2013. Fordham Law Review, Vol. 81, http://fordhamlawreview.org/assets/pdfs/Vol_81/Horowitz_April.pdf~~
Given the broad and vague language of the AUMF, it was initially unclear whether
AND
of habeas corpus), regardless of their citizenship status or national origin. n61
C. Congress and the Supreme Court Battle over Procedural Rights In response to the
AND
present numerous constitutional questions that the courts will inevitably have to resolve." n109

The plan creates a standard of protection from substantial abuse

Aamer Petitioners 13
AHMED BELBACHA, NABIL HADJARAB, ABU WA’EL (JIHAD) DHIAB, SHAKER AAMER, Petitioners, v. BARACK H. OBAMA, et al., Respondents. "PETITIONERS’ MOTION FOR RECONSIDERATION OF JUDGE KESSLER’S MEMORANDUM ORDER OF JULY 8, 2013" Case 1:04-cv-02215-RMC Document 221 Filed 07/11/13 http://www.lawfareblog.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/ISN-238-239-290-722-Motion-For-Reconsideration-re-Enteral-Feeding-....pdf 

In Willis, a federal prisoner challenged the conditions of his confinement (his placement
AND
is within the scope of habeas jurisdiction as their only recourse to justice.

DC court decisions are incorrect and have led to judicial inconsistency on force feeding. The court does have jurisdiction; 3 reasons.

Chong 8-6
Jane Chong (Jane Chong is a third-year student at Yale Law School, where she is an editor of the Yale Law Journal. She researches national security issues at Brookings as a Ford Foundation Law School Fellow and has previously interned in the narcotics and terrorism units at the U.S. Attorney’s Office for the Southern District of New York. She graduated from Duke University in 2009). "Appellant Brief Filed in Aamer v. Obama" Tuesday, August 6, 2013 at 11:00 AM. http://www.lawfareblog.com/2013/08/appellant-brief-filed-in-aamer-v-obama/
Three Guantanamo detainees filed their opening brief yesterday in Aamer v. Obama. Shaker
AND
18, before Circuit Judges Tatel and Griffith and Senior Circuit Judge Williams. 

The DC court solves so hard, Obama won’t know what hit him.

Goad and Hattem 13
Julian Hattem graduated from the University of Chicago with honors with a B.A. in Anthropology. Ben Goad graduated from Harper Adams College. "REGULATION NATION: Courts emerge as hurdle to Obama regs." 29 August 2013. The Hill. http://thehill.com/blogs/regwatch/court-battles/319287-regulation-nation-courts-emerge-as-obstacle-for-obama-regs 

Three of its 11 seats are vacant — one since 2005. Obama has nominated
AND
coming years," said Philip Wallach, a fellow at the Brookings Institution.

Tournament: UTD | Round: 3 | Opponent: UTSA CM | Judge: Max Archer

Force-Feeding 1AC, Version 1

Contention 1: Torture

The United States is force feeding dozens of detainees in the status quo. This is the new face of torture. The atrocity occurs at least twice a day, and it violates medical ethics.

Lendman 13
Stephen Lendman (BA, Harvard; MBA, Wharton School, market research 2008 Project Censored winner and 2011 Mexican Journalists Club international journalism award recipient). Global Research, May 20, 2013. "Guantanamo Force-Feeding Constitutes Torture." http://www.globalresearch.ca/guantanamo-force-feeding-constitutes-torture/5335757

Around 130 of 166 Guantanamo detainees refuse food. They’re hunger striking for justice.
AND
striking patients from each other is vital to prevent them from achieving solidarity."

Moath Al-alwi, one of the force-fed detainees, explains his experience.

Moath Al-alwi 10-15 (11 year detainee at Guantanamo). "I Am Writing This After My Morning Forced-Feeding Session in Guantanamo." 15 October 2013. http://www.alternet.org/i-am-writing-after-my-morning-forced-feeding-session-guantanamo

I write this following my return from the morning’s force-feeding session here at
AND
God continue to sustain us all until we achieve our goal of justice. 

Torture is a systematic oppression that kills agency and value to life.

Wolfgang 99 (German Philosopher, Anthropologist- professor at Universities of Gottingen 26 Erfurt. ~Sofsky, "The endurance of impotence: The dynamics of persecutory violence," International Psychoanalysis Newsletter,)

The prisoners will be incarcerated or put into camps and, not rarely, are
AND
cosmos at the border of the social world, a universum of unparalleled destructivity

Abuse at Gitmo is lockstep with a pattern of US militarism that legitimizes a police state domestically.

Whitehead 12
John W. Whitehead (attourney, president of The Rutherford Institute, a nonprofit civil liberties and human rights organization). "Guantanamo Bay: The Model for an American Police State?" The Rutherford Institute. September 24, 2012 https://www.rutherford.org/publications_resources/john_whiteheads_commentary/guantanamo_bay_the_model_for_an_american_police_state 

 "The means of defense against foreign danger historically have become the instruments of
AND
into a police state without the populace cluing in until it’s too late. 

Abuse at GTMO – including force-feeding – has created a gendered and racialized narrative of Muslims as terrorists.

Philipose 2007- Department of Women’s Studies California State University, Long Beach The Politics of Pain and the Uses of Torture Journal of Women in Culture and Society 2007, vol. 32, no. 4 Waldman)

Since September 11, 2001, the equation of Muslim with terrorist has lodged in
AND
played a critical role in the cultivation of a new regime of looking. 

Using hypothetical risk scenarios to justify torture is the specific mechanism that causes torture to be normalized and spread like wildfire.

Hunsinger 8 ~George Hunsinger is the Hazel Thompson McCord Professor of Systematic Theology at Princeton Theological Seminary. Torture is the ticking time bomb. Dialog, vol. 47(3), Fall~
The so-called ’ticking time-bomb scenario’ is analogous to the just
AND
crisis, in a downward spiral of fear and self-empowerment."15

Recent court rulings on force-feeding create a legal aporia at GTMO, laying the groundwork for institutionally legitimized torture.

Wakeman 13
Raffaela Wakeman (Raffaela Wakeman is a law student at Georgetown University Law Center and a project manager at the Brookings Institution, where she researches law, American politics, and governance issues. She graduated with a B.S. and M.S. in political science from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 2009, and wrote her Master’s thesis on electoral design in the Middle East). "GTMO Detainee To District Court: You Do Have Jurisdiction Over Forced Feeding."Friday, July 12, 2013 at 2:38 PM. http://www.lawfareblog.com/2013/07/gtmo-detainee-to-district-court-you-do-have-jurisdiction-over-forced-feeding/

Readers will recall Monday’s order by District Court Judge Gladys Kessler dismissing, on jurisdictional
AND
the level of custody", and thus habeas corpus provides the proper remedy. 

American torture at Guantanamo Bay has become a global model for a oppression and governmental abuse.

Foot 6
Rosemary Foot, St Antony’s College, Oxford. Torture: The Struggle over a Peremptory Norm in a Counter-Terrorist Era. International Relations 2006 SAGE Publications (London, Thousand Oaks, CA and New Delhi), Vol 20(2): 131–151. http://www.arts.yorku.ca/politics/ncanefe/courses/pols4255/pdf/Week20620Foot.pdf

This ’torture culture’ (Luban’s phrase) had earlier been given licence by the
AND
and other official personnel, but apparently elsewhere in the world as well. 

The prohibition on torture is the archetype of rule of law. Failure to meaningfully restrict torture causes the whole system to unravel.

Waldron 5 ~Jeremy Waldron, University Professor, Columbia Law School. TORTURE AND POSITIVE LAW: JURISPRUDENCE FOR THE WHITE HOUSE. 105 Colum. L. Rev. 1681~
One point is that "engines of state" and "engines of law"
AND
wholly under its power with methods of brutality from which law itself recoils.

Adherence to rule of law does mean deference to current legal norms but to the principle of a limited government, which is a prerequisite to any social movement.

Jonathan Rose ’4 (Arizona State University College of Law). "The Rule of Law in the Western World: An Overview." Journal of Social Philosophy, Vol. 35, 2004. http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1426343

Perhaps. Thus, as many of the commentators suggest, adherence to the Rule
AND
rule of law "has been under mounting pressure in modern society."70

Even after GTMO closes, the court precedent about detentions that happened there will determine the future of foreign policy.

Hernandez-Lopez, 2010:
(Guantanamo As A "Legal Black Hole": A Base For Expanding Space, Markets, and Culture. January 2010. Ernesto A. Hernandez-Lopez, Associate Professor of Law At Chapman University School of Law.)

This Article has offered preliminary suggestions as to why Empire purposefully creates Guantanamo’s jurisdictional anomalies
AND
, and policymakers should explore the motivations and effects of these legal instruments.

Thus, the Plan

The United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia circuit should overturn the decision in Aamer v. Obama on the grounds that force feeding is an unconstitutional violation of the writ of habeas corpus.

Contention 2: Solvency

SCOTUS has ruled that every aspect of indefinite detention flows from the president’s war power’s authority, and that this gives federal district courts the power to check that authority through habeas corpus challenges.

Horowitz 13 ~Creating A More Meaningful Detention Statute: Lessons Learned From Hedges v. Obama. Colby P. Horowitz, J.D. Candidate, 2014, Fordham University School of Law. Captain, U.S. Army. 2013. Fordham Law Review, Vol. 81, http://fordhamlawreview.org/assets/pdfs/Vol_81/Horowitz_April.pdf~~
Given the broad and vague language of the AUMF, it was initially unclear whether
AND
of habeas corpus), regardless of their citizenship status or national origin. n61
C. Congress and the Supreme Court Battle over Procedural Rights In response to the
AND
present numerous constitutional questions that the courts will inevitably have to resolve." n109

The plan creates a standard of protection from substantial abuse

Aamer Petitioners 13
AHMED BELBACHA, NABIL HADJARAB, ABU WA’EL (JIHAD) DHIAB, SHAKER AAMER, Petitioners, v. BARACK H. OBAMA, et al., Respondents. "PETITIONERS’ MOTION FOR RECONSIDERATION OF JUDGE KESSLER’S MEMORANDUM ORDER OF JULY 8, 2013" Case 1:04-cv-02215-RMC Document 221 Filed 07/11/13 http://www.lawfareblog.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/ISN-238-239-290-722-Motion-For-Reconsideration-re-Enteral-Feeding-....pdf 

In Willis, a federal prisoner challenged the conditions of his confinement (his placement
AND
is within the scope of habeas jurisdiction as their only recourse to justice.

DC court decisions are incorrect and have led to judicial inconsistency on force feeding. The court does have jurisdiction; 3 reasons.

Chong 8-6
Jane Chong (Jane Chong is a third-year student at Yale Law School, where she is an editor of the Yale Law Journal. She researches national security issues at Brookings as a Ford Foundation Law School Fellow and has previously interned in the narcotics and terrorism units at the U.S. Attorney’s Office for the Southern District of New York. She graduated from Duke University in 2009). "Appellant Brief Filed in Aamer v. Obama" Tuesday, August 6, 2013 at 11:00 AM. http://www.lawfareblog.com/2013/08/appellant-brief-filed-in-aamer-v-obama/
Three Guantanamo detainees filed their opening brief yesterday in Aamer v. Obama. Shaker
AND
18, before Circuit Judges Tatel and Griffith and Senior Circuit Judge Williams. 

The DC court solves so hard, Obama won’t know what hit him.

Goad and Hattem 13
Julian Hattem graduated from the University of Chicago with honors with a B.A. in Anthropology. Ben Goad graduated from Harper Adams College. "REGULATION NATION: Courts emerge as hurdle to Obama regs." 29 August 2013. The Hill. http://thehill.com/blogs/regwatch/court-battles/319287-regulation-nation-courts-emerge-as-obstacle-for-obama-regs 

Three of its 11 seats are vacant — one since 2005. Obama has nominated
AND
coming years," said Philip Wallach, a fellow at the Brookings Institution.

Hunger Strikes challenge colonialism.  The plan advances the automony of hunger strikers to challenge the government

Meghan J.  Clark 7/18/2013, is an Assistant Professor of Theology and Religious Studies in moral theology at St. John’s University. http://catholicmoraltheology.com/on-the-morality-of-force-feeding-hunger-strikers/
Response: I answer that it is always unethical to force feed hunger strikers.
AND
it a medical procedure does not obliterate questions of cruel and inhumane treatment.

The plan rewrites technocratic war planning – legal regulations are KEY

Scheuerman, 06 ~William E. Survey Article: Emergency Powers and the Rule of Law After 9/11* Political Science, Indiana University, Bloomington, The Journal of Political Philosophy: Volume 14, Number 1, 2006, pp. 61–84~
III. BEYOND CARL SCHMITT? Only by effectively subjecting the exercise of emergency power
AND
precedent of Korematsu will not be extended to the ’war on terrorism’?"

Tournament: Districts | Round: 1 | Opponent: UGA DG | Judge: Stephen Weil

Contention 1

The universe has a flat topology which undermines util calculation. All actions would have equal and infinite value.

Bostrom 2
Bostrom, Nick (2002) Are Cosmological Theories Compatible with All Possible Evidence: A Missing Methodological Link.
In the standard Big Bang model, assuming the simplest topology (i.e
AND
world is canonically infinite then it is always ethically indifferent what we do.

?

Quantum mechanics makes death impossible.

Higgo 98
Higgo, James (physicist, masters from U Edinborough). "Does the ’many-worlds’ interpretation of quantum mechanics imply immortality?" November 1998.
Abstract The Everett ’Many Worlds Interpretation’ of quantum physics postulates that that all systems evolve
AND
If so, we are immortal - from our own point of view. 

?

Accounting for quantum indeterminacy requires adopting an ethic of responsibility for our own choices. Accounting for all bad consequences is impossible and only breeds ressentiment.

Erb 8
Scott Erb (Professor of Political Science, University of Maine – Farmington.) "Spinoza, quantum mechanics and free will." 20 June, 2008.

Baruch Spinoza had a philosophy that was very complicated and in some ways odd.
AND
issue, that of intentionality, but I’ll leave that aside for now21)

The US fails to take responsibility for its use of private contractors in combat zones. They commit crimes with impunity which undermines the distinction between civilian and combatant.

Soder 10 (Brenda, June 18, Media Relations Director Joined Human Rights First, http://www.humanrightsfirst.org/media/usls/2010/alert/624/index.htm  , Human Rights First)
WASHINGTON - June 18 - Human Rights First today urged members of the Commission on
AND
civilians and combatants, and jeopardize other civilians performing important roles in theater.

Independently, protection of noncombatants is a D-rule for virtue. Use of mercenaries undermines our telos.

Bell 12
Daniel M. Bell, Jr. (Professor of Theological Ethics, Lutheran Theological Southern Seminary). "The Moral Crisis of Just War: Beyond Deontology Toward a Professional Military Ethic." 2 July 2012. http://faithandwar.org/index.php?option=com_content26view=article26id=158:the-moral-crisis-of-just-war26catid=43:history-of-war26Itemid=58

Furthermore, public perception and the heralds of "4th generation warfare" notwithstanding,
AND
man cannot be is a good sailor, or soldier, or airman."

Breakdown of noncombatant immunity causes total war

Engeland 11:
(Civilian or Combatant?: A Challenge for the 21st Century, p 20-21. 2011. Anicee van Engeland, Lecturer in Law at the University of London).

Ethics still plays a role, despite the existence of normative rules. From an
AND
initial restraint, both countries showed a real will to annihilate each other.

Contention 2 is Separation of War Powers

?

Expansive roles for contractors have led to the ever-increasing privatization of warfare, creating a profit motive for war.

Davidson 10
Joe Davidson. "Defining ’inherently governmental’ and role of contractors in U.S. war fight."
Tuesday, June 22, 2010. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/06/21/AR2010062104678.html
Where should Uncle Sam draw the line for the hired guns protecting his interests in war zones?
Or, put more politely, "are private security contractors performing inherently governmental functions
AND
the safety of Americans left in Iraq." That’s not a pretty picture. 

Specifically, use of PMCs in combat undermines democratic and congressional checks on warmaking.

SALZMAN 9 ("PRIVATE MILITARY CONTRACTORS AND THE TAINT OF A MERCENARY" REPUTATION ZOE New York University School of Law INTERNATIONAL LAW AND POLITICS ~Vol. 40:853 May 14, http://law.nyu.edu/ecm_dlv4/groups/public/@nyu_law_website__journals__journal_of_international_law_and_politics/documents/documents/ecm_pro_058877.pdf)
In addition to challenging the state’s monopoly on the use of force, the privatization
AND
counts and public criticism down, and even to avoid arms embargoes.96 

?

Democratic decision-making is a moral side constraint

Christiano 6
Christiano, Thomas (University of Arizona). Democracy, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Jul 27, 2006. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/democracy/~~23NonInsVal

Some argue that the basic principles of democracy are founded in the idea that each
AND
to make bad or unjust decisions for themselves regarding those activities they share.

?

Util's not a practical decision-procedure.

Ord 5
Toby Ord (University of Oxford). "Consequentialism and Decision Procedures." Thesis. 2005.
June 2005. http://www.amirrorclear.net/academic/papers/decision-procedures.pdf

The discussions so far regarding naïve calculation rest on an assumption which is in fact
AND
. This answer requires considerable development which it will receive in subsequent chapters. 

Governments should adopt the principle of separation of powers. Case-by-case decision-making is plagued by executive groupthink which causes miscalculation and military adventurism

Martin ’11, Craig Martin, Visiting Assistant Professor, University of Baltimore School of Law, Winter, 2011 Brooklyn Law Review 76 Brooklyn L. Rev. 611, ARTICLE: Taking War Seriously: A Model for Constitutional Constraints on the Use of Force in Compliance with In-ternational Law, Lexis, jj

There are a wide variety of theories, and indeed a number of different sublevels
AND
his overall theory more fully below when we turn to consider Image III. 

?

People Have A Cognitive Bias Towards Specific Link Chains. Evaluate Specific DAs As Innately Less Probable Than Broad Non-Linear Scenarios

Yudkowsky, 2006:
~Eliezer, 8/31/2006. Singularity Institute for Artificial Intelligence Palo Alto, CA. "Cognitive biases potentially affecting judgment of global risks, Forthcoming in Global Catastrophic Risks, eds. Nick Bostrom and Milan Cirkovic,singinst.org/upload/cognitive-biases.pdf.
4. The Conjunction Fallacy Linda is 31 years old, single, outspoken,
AND
a futurist, disjunctions make for an awkward and unpoetic-sounding prophecy.

Solvency

Clarifying IGFs In The Context Of High Risk Activities Is Key To Get PMCs Out Of Hostilities

Tiefer, 2013:
Charles Tiefer. (Commissioner, Commission on Wartime Contracting in Iraq and Afghanistan; Professor, University of Baltimore Law School.) GOVERNMENT OUTSOURCING AND PRIVATIZATION: RESTRAIN "RISKY BUSINESS": TREAT HIGH-RISK PRIVATE SECURITY CONTRACTORS AS INHERENTLY GOVERNMENTAL. Harvard Journal on Legislation, Winter, 2013. 50 Harv. J. on Legis. 209. http://www3.law.harvard.edu/journals/jol/files/2013/09/Tiefer_Article.pdf

Should Congress limit private security contractors ("PSCs") in wartime by declaring that high
AND
largescale use of PSCs, distinct from personal security details: convoy duty.

Plan Is The Best Middle-Ground Between No Regulation And A Complete Ban; statutory action is key to clear demarcation and symbolic restraint

Laplaca, 2013:
Anthony Laplaca (Former Washington DC Attorney General).. "Settling the inherently governmental functions debate once and for all: the need for comprehensive legislation of private security contractors in Afghanistan." 24 April 2013. http://iissonline.net/settling-the-inherently-governmental-functions-debate-once-and-for-all-the-need-for-comprehensive-legislation-of-private-security-contractors-in-afghanistan-2/

B. The Need for a Legislative Solution The best hope for alleviating the IGF
AND
apt to impose PSCs where they are not wanted by the local government. 

Executive restraint is the squo and doesn’t solve. Statutory restrictions are key to prevent future expansion of PMC functions.

Tiefer, 2013:
Charles Tiefer. (Commissioner, Commission on Wartime Contracting in Iraq and Afghanistan; Professor, University of Baltimore Law School.) GOVERNMENT OUTSOURCING AND PRIVATIZATION: RESTRAIN "RISKY BUSINESS": TREAT HIGH-RISK PRIVATE SECURITY CONTRACTORS AS INHERENTLY GOVERNMENTAL. Harvard Journal on Legislation, Winter, 2013. 50 Harv. J. on Legis. 209. http://www3.law.harvard.edu/journals/jol/files/2013/09/Tiefer_Article.pdf

II. LIMITING HIGH RISK USES OF PSCS BECAUSE THESE ARE "INHERENTLY GOVERNMENTAL"
AND
tasks, but, after that, must do its own war work.

?

Discussion of IGFs has important educational and research value.

Anderson 8
Lori C. Anderson (thesis for PhD Department of Public Administration and Public Affairs). The meaning of inherently govermental in OMB Circular A-76 from 1966 to 2003: a change in governing approaches? 2008.
http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-12062008-194138/
There is a research deficit in public administration.  We do not adequately ask how
AND
features of thick ethical concepts as presented by Williams and expands the idea.  

Plan

Thus, the Plan: The United States Federal Government should restrict the introduction of United States Armed Forces into hostilities by statutorily defining high risk activities to be inherently governmental functions.

Tournament: UNT | Round: 4 | Opponent: UNI SS | Judge: Max Archer

Contention One: Distinction Principle

PMCs Are In A Grey Zone Between Civilians And Combatants.  As A Result, Their Participation In Active Hostilities Critically Undermines The Principle Of Distinction

Crawford, 2011:
(The Civil-Military Interface in 21st Century Armed Conflict – Private Military Contractors and the Principle of Distinction. Emily Crawford, BA (Hons) LLB, PhD (UNSW), Postdoctoral Fellow at the University of Sydney.  August 2011.  Sydney Law School Legal Studies Research Paper No. 11/45)

The involvement of PMSCs in active hostilities is problematic on a number of levels,
AND
the armed forces, and makes the principle of distinction harder to respect. 

Every Violation Of The Distinction Principle Is Significant And Risks The Catastrophic Massacre, Torture, And Rape Of Innocent Civilians

Engeland, 2011:
(Civilian or Combatant?: A Challenge for the 21st Century, p. xvi-xvii. 2011. Anicee van Engeland, Lecturer in Law at the University of London)

The blurring between the two categories, combatants and non-combatants, is prone
AND
The focus of the law must be on civilians and not on war. 

States Have An Ethical Obligation To Respect The Distinction Principle; Any Alternative Risks The Chaos Of Total War

Engeland, 2011:
(Civilian or Combatant?: A Challenge for the 21st Century, p 20-21. 2011. Anicee van Engeland, Lecturer in Law at the University of London).

Ethics still plays a role, despite the existence of normative rules. From an
AND
initial restraint, both countries showed a real will to annihilate each other. 

PMC Participation In Combat Operations Undermines The Distinction Principle And Leads To Civilian Casualties

Heaton, 2004:
(CIVILIANS AT WAR: REEXAMINING THE STATUS OF CIVILIANS ACCOMPANYING THE ARMED FORCES.  John Heaton, Major In The U.S. Air Force.  July 15, 2004.)

Conversely, if direct participation is defined narrowly, then the range of positions that
AND
military role and the civilian- contractor role are exactly the same «2T9

The Impact Is Systemic And Ongoing; Civilian Casualties Are Increasing Exponentially In The Status Quo

Keck, 2012:
(NOT ALL CIVILIANS ARE CREATED EQUAL: THE PRINCIPLE OF DISTINCTION, THE QUESTION OF DIRECT PARTICIPATION IN HOSTILITIES AND EVOLVING RESTRAINTS ON THE USE OF FORCE IN WARFARE TREVOR A. KECK, a recent graduate of the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy at Tufts University, where he focused on International Security and Public International Law.  Military Law Review, Vol. 211 2012.)

Civilians increasingly bear the highest cost in post-cold war conflicts. In 1996
AND
-mbatant and insurgent deaths by a ratio of 20:1.44 

Killing Innocents Is Always Wrong; It Uses People As A Means To An End And Violates An Individual’s Absolute Right To Non-Interference

Murphy, 1973:
(The Killing Of The Innocent. The Monist, Vol. 57, No. 4 (1973): 527-550. Jeffrie G. Murphy, Professor of Law and Philosophy At Arizona State University. Note: This evidence has been modified for gendered-language.)

When’ a man has a right, he has a claim against interference. Simply
AND
innocent" without thereby necessarily being an authoritarian or a dogmatic moral fanatic. 

Permitting Innocents To Be Killed Is Always Wrong; Any Argument To The Contrary Justifies Absolute Evil

Pearson, 2011:
(Killing Innocent People Is Always Wrong. December 26, 2011. Adam Pearson, Bachelor’s Degrees In Business Administration and Spanish.  Master’s Degree In Accountancy. http://powerorliberty.wordpress.com/2011/12/26/killing-innocent-people-is-always-wrong/-http://powerorliberty.wordpress.com/2011/12/26/killing-innocent-people-is-always-wrong/)

The first news that I read this morning was about the recent terrorist attacks in
AND
already, to embrace the truth. Killing innocent people is ALWAYS wrong.

Contention Two: Structural Violence

PMCs Are Unaccountable, And Every Reform Has Failed. This Allows PMCs To Commit Crimes With Impunity, Including Killing Innocent Civilians

Homayun, 2013:
(The Privatization Of War and the Problem for Distinction. Carleton Review of International Affairs, vol. 2 (Fall, 2013). Avista Homayun, graduated from Carleton’s Bachelor of Public Affairs and Policy Management program in 2013, specializing in International Studies.)

The beginning of this paper described an episode in which Blackwater employees, in the
AND
states, such as the use of locals of Iraq or Afghanistan.74

Specifically, PMCs Tortured Prisoners At Abu Ghraib, Killed Innocent Civilians, And Were Never Held Accountable

Kierpaul, 2008:
(THE MAD SCRAMBLE OF CONGRESS, LAWYERS, AND LAW STUDENTS AFTE R ABU GHRAIB: THE RUSH TO BRING PRIVATE MILITARY CONTRACTORS TO JUSTICE. Ian Kierpaul, J.D. Candidate, University Of Toledo College of Law. University of Toledo Law Review, Vol. 39/ Winter 2008) 

The world will always remember Abu Ghraib as the place where U.S.
AND
, in the future , private military contractors will face criminal prosecution. 12

Torture Is A Systematic Oppression That Kills Agency And Value To Life

Wolfgang, 1999:
(German Philosopher, Anthropologist- professor at Universities of Gottingen 26 Erfurt. ~Sofsky, "The endurance of impotence: The dynamics of persecutory violence," International Psychoanalysis Newsletter,)

The prisoners will be incarcerated or put into camps and, not rarely, are
AND
cosmos at the border of the social world, a universum of unparalleled destructivity

PMCs Create A Culture Of Sexual Violence, Including Rape And sex Trafficking; They Uniquely Exploit Women

Snell, 2011:
(The Absence of Justice: Private Military Contractors, Sexual Assault, and the U.S. Government’s Policy of Indifference. Angela Snell, J.D. Candidate, 2011, University of Illinois College of Law.  University of Illinois Law Review, Vol. 2011, No. 3.)

Rape of female PMCs by their co-workers has garnered public attention and even
AND
are then treated by PMCs as sexual objects in a postconflict environment. 94

Sexual Violence Is A Forgotten Atrocity That Spills Over Into International Structures Of War And Oppression

MacKinnon, 2006:
(Elizabeth A. MacKinnon, Professor of Law At The Universty Of Michigan. Are Women Human ? And Other International Dialogues. 2006. P. 273-274)
Acts of violence against women are mass atrocities, mass human rights violations, widespread
AND
fought, and then are fraternally over, while everyday life never ends.

Structural Violence Is Genocidal And Has Killed Hundreds Of Millions

Ahmed, 2007:
(Nafeez Mosaddeq Ahmed, Professor Of International Relations At The University Of Sussex. Structural Violence As A Form Of Genocide: The Impact Of The International Economic Order. 2007)

Genocide is conventionally associated with direct physical violence targeted against national, ethnic, or
AND
are a variety of inadequacies in existing conceptualizations of genocide and structural violence.

Independently, Private Military Contractors Undermine Conflict Recovery And Risk Long-Term International Instability

Gaston, 2008:
(Mercenarism 2.0? The Rise of the Modern Private Security Industry and Its Implications for International Humanitarian Law Enforcement. E.L. Gaston, J.D., Harvard Law School, 2007. This note is winner of the 2007 Harvard International Law Journal
Student Note Competition. Harvard International Law Journal, VOLUME 49, NUMBER 1, WINTER 2008)

Finally, one additional, emerging threat that PMSCs may pose to the international system
AND
-dollar disarmament process by allowing warlords to keep their militias active.91 

Thus, the Plan: The United States federal government should statutorily amend the Federal Activities Inventory Reform Act of 1998 such that inherently governmental functions include high risk activities for purposes of Department of Defense contracting.

===Contention Three: Solvency===

Clarifying IGFs In The Context Of High Risk Activities Is Key To Get PMCs Out Of Hostilities

Tiefer, 2013:
Charles Tiefer. (Commissioner, Commission on Wartime Contracting in Iraq and Afghanistan; Professor, University of Baltimore Law School.) GOVERNMENT OUTSOURCING AND PRIVATIZATION: RESTRAIN "RISKY BUSINESS": TREAT HIGH-RISK PRIVATE SECURITY CONTRACTORS AS INHERENTLY GOVERNMENTAL. Harvard Journal on Legislation, Winter, 2013. 50 Harv. J. on Legis. 209. http://www3.law.harvard.edu/journals/jol/files/2013/09/Tiefer_Article.pdf

Should Congress limit private security contractors ("PSCs") in wartime by declaring that high
AND
2) other areas where PSCs may make payoffs to the enemy.21 

Statutory Amendment Of The FAIR Act Is Key To Restrict PMCs; Plan Is The Best Middle-Ground Between No Regulation And A Complete Ban

Laplaca, 2013:
Anthony Laplaca (Former Washington DC Attorney General).. "Settling the inherently governmental functions debate once and for all: the need for comprehensive legislation of private security contractors in Afghanistan." 24 April 2013. http://iissonline.net/settling-the-inherently-governmental-functions-debate-once-and-for-all-the-need-for-comprehensive-legislation-of-private-security-contractors-in-afghanistan-2/-http://iissonline.net/settling-the-inherently-governmental-functions-debate-once-and-for-all-the-need-for-comprehensive-legislation-of-private-security-contractors-in-afghanistan-2/

B. The Need for a Legislative Solution The best hope for alleviating the IGF
AND
apt to impose PSCs where they are not wanted by the local government. 

The Executive Empirically Fails In The Context Of The Plan. Independently, Unregulated PMCs Create Widespread Backlash And Undermine Combat Operations

Tiefer, 2013:
Charles Tiefer. (Commissioner, Commission on Wartime Contracting in Iraq and Afghanistan; Professor, University of Baltimore Law School.) GOVERNMENT OUTSOURCING AND PRIVATIZATION: RESTRAIN "RISKY BUSINESS": TREAT HIGH-RISK PRIVATE SECURITY CONTRACTORS AS INHERENTLY GOVERNMENTAL. Harvard Journal on Legislation, Winter, 2013. 50 Harv. J. on Legis. 209. http://www3.law.harvard.edu/journals/jol/files/2013/09/Tiefer_Article.pdf

B. Defining, in Terms of "High Risk," Not "Combat,"
AND
tasks, but, after that, must do its own war work. 

Specific policy analysis of war power is key to hold the state accountable.

Mellor 13
The Australian National University, ANU College of Asia and the Pacific, Department Of International Relations,
"Why policy relevance is a moral necessity: Just war theory, impact, and UAVs," European University Institute, Paper Prepared for BISA Conference 2013, DOA: 8-14-13

This section of the paper considers more generally the need for just war theorists to
AND
only benefit al Qaeda,50 is a grotesque act of intellectual irresponsibility. 

Rejecting High Magnitude Impacts Is Key To Policymaking; Any Alternative Risks Political Passivity

Hannsson, 2005:
Sven Ove Hansson, Professor in Philosophy At The Royal Institute Of Technology) ~"The Epistemology of Technological Risk," Techne: research in philosophy and Technology, Volume 9, Number 2, Winter 2005 http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ ejournals/SPT/v9n2/hansson. html-http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/SPT/v9n2/hansson.html~~

However, it would not be feasible to take such possibilities into account in all
AND
our knowledge about their resilience towards various disturbances has not been sufficiently systematized. 

Even if the State is academically obsolete, normative refusal to discuss or work with it is naïve and counter-productive

Dr. Inis Claude is a Professor of Government and Foreign Affairs, Emeritus, at the University of Virginia. During his teaching career, Professor Claude held positions at the University of Michigan, Harvard University, Columbia University, University of Wales, and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, and the Institute of Social Studies at the Hague. States and the Global System – 1988
Finally, let us take note of the view that the state is obsolete,
AND
rather than to rail against the system and to dream of abolishing it.

Tournament: UNT | Round: 5 | Opponent: MoState MP | Judge: Eric Robinson

Contention One: Distinction Principle

PMCs Are In A Grey Zone Between Civilians And Combatants.  As A Result, Their Participation In Active Hostilities Critically Undermines The Principle Of Distinction

Crawford, 2011:
(The Civil-Military Interface in 21st Century Armed Conflict – Private Military Contractors and the Principle of Distinction. Emily Crawford, BA (Hons) LLB, PhD (UNSW), Postdoctoral Fellow at the University of Sydney.  August 2011.  Sydney Law School Legal Studies Research Paper No. 11/45)

The involvement of PMSCs in active hostilities is problematic on a number of levels,
AND
the armed forces, and makes the principle of distinction harder to respect. 

Other Contractors Are Irrelevant; Use Of PMCs In Hostilities Uniquely Undermines The Distinction Principle

Michaels, 2004:
(Jon D. Assistant Professor of Law at the UCLA School of Law. Law Clerk to the Honorable Guido Calabresi, U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit; Washington University Law Quarterly, BEYOND ACCOUNTABILITY: THE CONSTITUTIONAL, DEMOCRATIC, AND STRATEGIC PROBLEMS WITH PRIVATIZING WAR, Fall, 82 Wash. U. L. Q. 1001)

Today, the U.S. military contracts out more than just catering and
AND
43 in ways civilians staffing the mess halls or designing submarines never did.

Scenario One: War

The Distinction Principle Is Key To Prevent Conflict Escalation; Any Alternative Risks The Destruction Of Entire Civilizations

Keck, 2012:
(NOT ALL CIVILIANS ARE CREATED EQUAL: THE PRINCIPLE OF DISTINCTION, THE QUESTION OF DIRECT PARTICIPATION IN HOSTILITIES AND EVOLVING RESTRAINTS ON THE USE OF FORCE IN WARFARE TREVOR A. KECK, a recent graduate of the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy at Tufts University, where he focused on International Security and Public International Law.  Military Law Review, Vol. 211 2012. Note: This evidence has been modified for gendered language.)

The distinction principle is arguably the simplest, albeit most fundamental rule of IHL.
AND
was eventually seen as necessary to restrain ~hu~mankind’s worst impulses.

States Have An Ethical Obligation To Respect The Distinction Principle; Any Alternative Risks The Chaos Of Total War

Engeland, 2011:
(Civilian or Combatant?: A Challenge for the 21st Century, p 20-21. 2011. Anicee van Engeland, Lecturer in Law at the University of London).

Ethics still plays a role, despite the existence of normative rules. From an
AND
initial restraint, both countries showed a real will to annihilate each other.

Scenario Two: Civilian Casualties

Every Violation Of The Distinction Principle Is Significant And Risks The Catastrophic Massacre, Torture, And Rape Of Innocent Civilians

Engeland, 2011:
(Civilian or Combatant?: A Challenge for the 21st Century, p. xvi-xvii. 2011. Anicee van Engeland, Lecturer in Law at the University of London)

The blurring between the two categories, combatants and non-combatants, is prone
AND
The focus of the law must be on civilians and not on war. 

Independently, PMC Participation In Combat Operations Undermines The Distinction Principle And Leads To Civilian Casualties

Heaton, 2004:
(CIVILIANS AT WAR: REEXAMINING THE STATUS OF CIVILIANS ACCOMPANYING THE ARMED FORCES.  John Heaton, Major In The U.S. Air Force.  July 15, 2004.)

Conversely, if direct participation is defined narrowly, then the range of positions that
AND
military role and the civilian- contractor role are exactly the same «2T9

The Impact Is Systemic And Ongoing; Civilian Casualties Are Increasing Exponentially In The Status Quo

Keck, 2012:
(NOT ALL CIVILIANS ARE CREATED EQUAL: THE PRINCIPLE OF DISTINCTION, THE QUESTION OF DIRECT PARTICIPATION IN HOSTILITIES AND EVOLVING RESTRAINTS ON THE USE OF FORCE IN WARFARE TREVOR A. KECK, a recent graduate of the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy at Tufts University, where he focused on International Security and Public International Law.  Military Law Review, Vol. 211 2012.)

Civilians increasingly bear the highest cost in post-cold war conflicts. In 1996
AND
outnumbered combatant and insurgent deaths by a ratio of 20:1.44 

Killing Innocents Is Always Wrong; Any Argument To The Contrary Justifies Absolute Evil

Pearson, 2011:
(Killing Innocent People Is Always Wrong. December 26, 2011. Adam Pearson, Bachelor’s Degrees In Business Administration and Spanish.  Master’s Degree In Accountancy. http://powerorliberty.wordpress.com/2011/12/26/killing-innocent-people-is-always-wrong/)

The first news that I read this morning was about the recent terrorist attacks in
AND
already, to embrace the truth. Killing innocent people is ALWAYS wrong.

Contention Two: Taliban

Now Is The Key Time; Absent A Check Against The Taliban, They Will Return To Power By 2017. BSA Is Critical To Continued U.S. Military Presence And Aid To Afghanistan

RT News 12/29/13, http://rt.com/news/us-afghanistan-military-taliban-943/

Any success the US and its allies have enjoyed in Afghanistan in the past three
AND
left on the ground in Afghanistan, following the declared 2014 pullout date.

Karzai Wants Concessions Like The Plan, To Sign BSA

embassyofafghanistan.org, 5/18/2013, http://www.embassyofafghanistan.org/article/president-karzai-afghanistan-will-sign-the-bilateral-security-agreement-with-us-only-if-cond2020

President Hamid Karzai briefed the Cabinet on his recent telephone conversation with John Kerry,
AND
the Afghan people would agree with signing the agreement with the United States.
\

====The Plan Would Be Welcomed By Karzai As A Concession; Restricting PMCs Gives Him The Capital Necessary To Negotiate With Warring Factions In The Status Quo ====
Chase 8/24/2010, staff writer, http://www.dw.de/private-military-firms-likely-to-stay-in-iraq-afghanistan-despite-criticism/a-5938360
Over the weekend, Afghan President Hamid Karzai went on American television to justify a
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lot of unwelcome publicity lately, and he’s trying to ride that wave."

Independently, PMCs Funnel Money To The Taliban

Tiefer 13
Charles Tiefer. (Commissioner, Commission on Wartime Contracting in Iraq and Afghanistan; Professor, University of Baltimore Law School.) GOVERNMENT OUTSOURCING AND PRIVATIZATION: RESTRAIN "RISKY BUSINESS": TREAT HIGH-RISK PRIVATE SECURITY CONTRACTORS AS INHERENTLY GOVERNMENTAL. Harvard Journal on Legislation, Winter, 2013. 50 Harv. J. on Legis. 209. http://www3.law.harvard.edu/journals/jol/files/2013/09/Tiefer_Article.pdf

It is the standard operating procedure in Afghanistan for PSCs to negotiate with those figures
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troops, but just a drop in the ocean of Afghan corruption.83

Funding Props Up The Taliban

The Australian 9/12/12’ http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/world/how-the-taliban-funds-terror/story-e6frg6so-1226472433371 http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/world/how-the-taliban-funds-terror/story-e6frg6so-1226472433371
The experts estimated that Taliban raised 24400 million in the 12 months up to
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of attacks, reflecting a year-on-year increase in income."

Sectarian Violence Is On The Brink Now Because Of The Withdrawal Of U.S. Troops; Afghan Stability Remains Critical To Checking Middle East Collapse

NYT 1/5/2014, http://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/05/world/middleeast/power-vacuum-in-middle-east-lifts-militants.html?pagewanted=126rref=world26hpw
BEIRUT, Lebanon — The images of recent days have an eerie familiarity, as
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and the Sunnis because they are killing my people here and in Lebanon."

A Taliban Resurgence Risks Global Nuclear War

Morgan 2013, Better Another Taliban Afghanistan, than a Taliban NUCLEAR Pakistan21?
Stephen J. Morgan is a former member of the British Labour Party Executive Committee, http://www.thecheers.org/Politics/article_2180_Better-Another-Taliban-Afghanistan-than-a-Taliban-NUCLEAR-Pakistan.html~~23comment

Musharraf probably hopes that by giving de facto autonomy to the Taliban and Pashtun leaders
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possibly nuclear war, between Pakistan and India could not be ruled out.

==Contention Three: Solvency==

Thus, the Plan: The United States Federal Government should increase statutory restrictions on the war powers authority of the President of the United States to introduce United States Armed Forces into hostilities by amending the Federal Activities Inventory Reform Act of 1998 such that inherently governmental functions include high risk activities.

Clarifying IGFs In The Context Of High Risk Activities Is Key To Get PMCs Out Of Hostilities

Tiefer, 2013:
Charles Tiefer. (Commissioner, Commission on Wartime Contracting in Iraq and Afghanistan; Professor, University of Baltimore Law School.) GOVERNMENT OUTSOURCING AND PRIVATIZATION: RESTRAIN "RISKY BUSINESS": TREAT HIGH-RISK PRIVATE SECURITY CONTRACTORS AS INHERENTLY GOVERNMENTAL. Harvard Journal on Legislation, Winter, 2013. 50 Harv. J. on Legis. 209. http://www3.law.harvard.edu/journals/jol/files/2013/09/Tiefer_Article.pdf

Should Congress limit private security contractors ("PSCs") in wartime by declaring that high
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2) other areas where PSCs may make payoffs to the enemy.21 

Statutory Amendment Of The FAIR Act Is Key To Restrict PMCs; Plan Is The Best Middle-Ground Between No Regulation And A Complete Ban

Laplaca, 2013:
Anthony Laplaca (Former Washington DC Attorney General).. "Settling the inherently governmental functions debate once and for all: the need for comprehensive legislation of private security contractors in Afghanistan." 24 April 2013. http://iissonline.net/settling-the-inherently-governmental-functions-debate-once-and-for-all-the-need-for-comprehensive-legislation-of-private-security-contractors-in-afghanistan-2/

B. The Need for a Legislative Solution The best hope for alleviating the IGF
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apt to impose PSCs where they are not wanted by the local government. 

The Executive Empirically Fails In The Context Of The Plan. Independently, Unregulated PMCs Create Widespread Backlash And Undermine Combat Operations

Tiefer, 2013:
Charles Tiefer. (Commissioner, Commission on Wartime Contracting in Iraq and Afghanistan; Professor, University of Baltimore Law School.) GOVERNMENT OUTSOURCING AND PRIVATIZATION: RESTRAIN "RISKY BUSINESS": TREAT HIGH-RISK PRIVATE SECURITY CONTRACTORS AS INHERENTLY GOVERNMENTAL. Harvard Journal on Legislation, Winter, 2013. 50 Harv. J. on Legis. 209. http://www3.law.harvard.edu/journals/jol/files/2013/09/Tiefer_Article.pdf

B. Defining, in Terms of "High Risk," Not "Combat,"
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tasks, but, after that, must do its own war work.

Tournament: UT | Round: 1 | Opponent: Houston LR | Judge: Steven Murray

1AC

Contention One: Structural Violence

Roose Is Loose

UQ

PMCs Are Unaccountable, And Every Reform Has Failed. This Allows PMCs To Commit Crimes With Impunity, Including Killing Innocent Civilians

Homayun, 2013:
(The Privatization Of War and the Problem for Distinction. Carleton Review of International Affairs, vol. 2 (Fall, 2013). Avista Homayun, graduated from Carleton’s Bachelor of Public Affairs and Policy Management program in 2013, specializing in International Studies.)

The beginning of this paper described an episode in which Blackwater employees, in the
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states, such as the use of locals of Iraq or Afghanistan.74

Torture

Specifically, PMCs Tortured Prisoners At Abu Ghraib, Killed Innocent Civilians, And Were Never Held Accountable

Kierpaul, 2008:
(THE MAD SCRAMBLE OF CONGRESS, LAWYERS, AND LAW STUDENTS AFTE R ABU GHRAIB: THE RUSH TO BRING PRIVATE MILITARY CONTRACTORS TO JUSTICE. Ian Kierpaul, J.D. Candidate, University Of Toledo College of Law. University of Toledo Law Review, Vol. 39/ Winter 2008) 

The world will always remember Abu Ghraib as the place where U.S.
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, in the future , private military contractors will face criminal prosecution. 12

Torture Is A Systematic Oppression That Kills Agency And Value To Life

Wolfgang, 1999:
(German Philosopher, Anthropologist- professor at Universities of Gottingen 26 Erfurt. ~Sofsky, "The endurance of impotence: The dynamics of persecutory violence," International Psychoanalysis Newsletter,)

The prisoners will be incarcerated or put into camps and, not rarely, are
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cosmos at the border of the social world, a universum of unparalleled destructivity

Sexual Violence

PMCs Create A Culture Of Sexual Violence, Including Rape And Human Trafficking; They Uniquely Exploit Women

Snell, 2011:
(The Absence of Justice: Private Military Contractors, Sexual Assault, and the U.S. Government’s Policy of Indifference. Angela Snell, J.D. Candidate, 2011, University of Illinois College of Law.  University of Illinois Law Review, Vol. 2011, No. 3.)

Rape of female PMCs by their co-workers has garnered public attention and even
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are then treated by PMCs as sexual objects in a postconflict environment. 94

Sexual Violence Is A Forgotten Atrocity That Spills Over Into International Structures Of War And Oppression

MacKinnon, 2006:
(Elizabeth A. MacKinnon, Professor of Law At The Universty Of Michigan. Are Women Human ? And Other International Dialogues. 2006. P. 273-274)
Acts of violence against women are mass atrocities, mass human rights violations, widespread
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fought, and then are fraternally over, while everyday life never ends.

Privatization

Expansive roles for contractors have led to the ever-increasing privatization of warfare, creating a profit motive for war.

Davidson 10
Joe Davidson. "Defining ’inherently governmental’ and role of contractors in U.S. war fight."
Tuesday, June 22, 2010. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/06/21/AR2010062104678.html
Where should Uncle Sam draw the line for the hired guns protecting his interests in war zones?

Or, put more politely, "are private security contractors performing inherently governmental functions
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the safety of Americans left in Iraq." That’s not a pretty picture. 

PTS

Private sector health services, including charities, are insufficient and exploit PMCs. The impact is lack of access to medical care.

Kerry Patton, a combat disabled veteran, is author of Contracted: America’s Secret Warriors. 2/27/13, RAND Corporation Uses Private Security Contractors to Help Fund the Wounded Warrior Project, http://kerry-patton.com/rand-corporation-uses-private-security-contractors-to-help-fund-the-wounded-warrior-project/
The RAND Corporation is sponsoring a study on the health and well-being of
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independent contractor to take their company and the company’s insurance provider to court.

Specifically, PMCs deployed in combat zones are at a far higher risk of PTS and depression.

Lisa Sodders, High PTSD and Depression Rates of Private Contractors in Conflict Zones, http://www.disabled-world.com/disability/types/psychological/conflict.php, Dec 11, 2013
Abstract: Study reveals private contractors who worked in conflict environments report suffering from post
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. There are evidence-based treatments for these conditions," Farmer said.

Private Military Contractors Undermine Conflict Recovery And Risk Long-Term International Instability

Gaston, 2008:
(Mercenarism 2.0? The Rise of the Modern Private Security Industry and Its Implications for International Humanitarian Law Enforcement. E.L. Gaston, J.D., Harvard Law School, 2007. This note is winner of the 2007 Harvard International Law Journal
Student Note Competition. Harvard International Law Journal, VOLUME 49, NUMBER 1, WINTER 2008)

Finally, one additional, emerging threat that PMSCs may pose to the international system
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-dollar disarmament process by allowing warlords to keep their militias active.91 

Impact Framing

Structural Violence Is Genocidal And Has Killed Hundreds Of Millions

Ahmed, 2007:
(Nafeez Mosaddeq Ahmed, Professor Of International Relations At The University Of Sussex. Structural Violence As A Form Of Genocide: The Impact Of The International Economic Order. 2007)

Genocide is conventionally associated with direct physical violence targeted against national, ethnic, or
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are a variety of inadequacies in existing conceptualizations of genocide and structural violence.

Appeals To High Risk Scenarios Are Dangerously Ideological; They Normalize The Structural Violence Endemic To The Status Quo

Critchley, 2008:
(Critchley professor of philosophy at the New School 2008 Simon The Independent 1/11 http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/reviews/violence-by-slavoj-zizek-769535.html)
So it is with violence. Our subjective outrage at the facts of violence –
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urgency of the present with its multiple injunctions to intervene like good humanitarians.

==Contention Two: Solvency==

Thus, the Plan

The United States Federal Government should increase statutory restrictions on the war powers authority of the President of the United States to introduce United States Armed Forces into hostilities by amending the Federal Activities Inventory Reform Act of 1998 such that inherently governmental functions include high risk activities.

Solvency General

Clarifying IGFs In The Context Of High Risk Activities Is Key To Get PMCs Out Of Hostilities

Tiefer, 2013:
Charles Tiefer. (Commissioner, Commission on Wartime Contracting in Iraq and Afghanistan; Professor, University of Baltimore Law School.) GOVERNMENT OUTSOURCING AND PRIVATIZATION: RESTRAIN "RISKY BUSINESS": TREAT HIGH-RISK PRIVATE SECURITY CONTRACTORS AS INHERENTLY GOVERNMENTAL. Harvard Journal on Legislation, Winter, 2013. 50 Harv. J. on Legis. 209. http://www3.law.harvard.edu/journals/jol/files/2013/09/Tiefer_Article.pdf

Should Congress limit private security contractors ("PSCs") in wartime by declaring that high
AND
2) other areas where PSCs may make payoffs to the enemy.21 

Statutory Amendment Of The FAIR Act Is Key To Restrict PMCs; Plan Is The Best Middle-Ground Between No Regulation And A Complete Ban

Laplaca, 2013:
Anthony Laplaca (Former Washington DC Attorney General).. "Settling the inherently governmental functions debate once and for all: the need for comprehensive legislation of private security contractors in Afghanistan." 24 April 2013. http://iissonline.net/settling-the-inherently-governmental-functions-debate-once-and-for-all-the-need-for-comprehensive-legislation-of-private-security-contractors-in-afghanistan-2/

B. The Need for a Legislative Solution The best hope for alleviating the IGF
AND
apt to impose PSCs where they are not wanted by the local government. 

The plan is key to reverse the growing trend toward PMCs internationally.

Maffai 9
Margaret Maffai is currently working as a Program Development Officer for the Cairo Institute for Human Rights Studies, an Egyptian human rights NGO located in Cairo, Egypt. "Closing the Loophole: Private Military Contractors and Rights Violations." Jurist. 13 October, 2009.  http://jurist.org/forum/2009/10/closing-loophole-private-military.php
Not exactly. Though most lawmakers and American citizens recognize, at least on a
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that every representative of American force abroad operates within the reach of justice. 

AT XO

The Executive Empirically Fails In The Context Of The Plan. Independently, Unregulated PMCs Create Widespread Backlash

Tiefer, 2013:
Charles Tiefer. (Commissioner, Commission on Wartime Contracting in Iraq and Afghanistan; Professor, University of Baltimore Law School.) GOVERNMENT OUTSOURCING AND PRIVATIZATION: RESTRAIN "RISKY BUSINESS": TREAT HIGH-RISK PRIVATE SECURITY CONTRACTORS AS INHERENTLY GOVERNMENTAL. Harvard Journal on Legislation, Winter, 2013. 50 Harv. J. on Legis. 209. http://www3.law.harvard.edu/journals/jol/files/2013/09/Tiefer_Article.pdf

B. Defining, in Terms of "High Risk," Not "Combat,"
AND
tasks, but, after that, must do its own war work. 

Impact Framing

People Have A Cognitive Bias Towards Specific Link Chains. Evaluate Specific DAs As Innately Less Probable Than Broad Non-Linear Scenarios

Yudkowsky, 2006:
~Eliezer, 8/31/2006. Singularity Institute for Artificial Intelligence Palo Alto, CA. "Cognitive biases potentially affecting judgment of global risks, Forthcoming in Global Catastrophic Risks, eds. Nick Bostrom and Milan Cirkovic,singinst.org/upload/cognitive-biases.pdf.
4. The Conjunction Fallacy Linda is 31 years old, single, outspoken,
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a futurist, disjunctions make for an awkward and unpoetic-sounding prophecy.

Rejecting High Magnitude Impacts Is Key To Policymaking; Any Alternative Risks Political Passivity

Hannsson, 2005:
Sven Ove Hansson, Professor in Philosophy At The Royal Institute Of Technology) ~"The Epistemology of Technological Risk," Techne: research in philosophy and Technology, Volume 9, Number 2, Winter 2005 http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ ejournals/SPT/v9n2/hansson. html~

However, it would not be feasible to take such possibilities into account in all
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our knowledge about their resilience towards various disturbances has not been sufficiently systematized. 

Disco

Discussion of IGFs has important educational and research value.

Anderson 8
Lori C. Anderson (thesis for PhD Department of Public Administration and Public Affairs). The meaning of inherently govermental in OMB Circular A-76 from 1966 to 2003: a change in governing approaches? 2008.
http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-12062008-194138/
There is a research deficit in public administration.  We do not adequately ask how
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features of thick ethical concepts as presented by Williams and expands the idea.  

Specific policy analysis is key to hold the state accountable.

Mellor 13
The Australian National University, ANU College of Asia and the Pacific, Department Of International Relations,
"Why policy relevance is a moral necessity: Just war theory, impact, and UAVs," European University Institute, Paper Prepared for BISA Conference 2013, DOA: 8-14-13

Without an engagement with the reality of war, in terms of the policies used
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only benefit al Qaeda,50 is a grotesque act of intellectual irresponsibility. 

Focus on the president is an important site of social change.

Milkis et. al ’13, Sidney M. Milkis is the White Burkett Miller
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Movements, and the Transformation of American Politics, Proquest, online, jj

This article analyzes the often fraught yet sometimes productive relationship between the modern presidency and
AND
a new presidency-centered party system by the end of the 1980s.
This article explores the relationship between the modern presidency and social movements, an uneasy
AND
their society by using extra-institutional means" (1999, 5).
Although both presidents and social movements have played leading roles in the development of major
AND
ambitions and work of presidents and movements are sometimes complementary rather than antagonistic.
Our central point is that the emergence of the modern presidency recasts in important ways
AND
that prominent social movements in their camps championed (Miroff 1981,14).
The idea that the executive office might act as a spearhead for social justice-
AND
civil rights reforms and enormous political fallout for Johnson and the Democratic Party.
A little more than a decade later, a new executive-insurgency alliance spurred
AND
rancorous struggle between conservatives and liberals for control of the modern executive office.

Citizens’ discussion of the presidency is necessary to reclaim political agency.

Nelson ’08 (Dana D. Nelson, professor of English at Vanderbilt University, 2008,
 "Bad for Democracy: How the Presidency Undermines the Power of the People", pg xvii-xviii)

But Obama detractors, right and left, might usefully cool off a bit and
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too long considered "democracy" something that only "government" does.